![]() A couple of weeks ago, I had the good fortune to be able to attend the 37th Annual Convention of the Mexican International Studies Association (AMEI Asociación Mexicana de Estudios Internacionales) that took place in the northern city of Chihuahua, Mexico. This was my second AMEI convention, as I participated in the previous one in Merida and had a fantastic time. This time around, I had the opportunity to present two papers. The first was about the challenges of gastrodiplomacy from a local perspective, which will be a chapter in the upcoming handbook on gastronomic diplomacy. My second paper centered on public diplomacy’s challenges in the artificial intelligence era, mainly social media algorithms and disinformation. Fortunately, there are ways to overcome them and continue to work on public diplomacy strategies in the AI era. One of the strengths of AMEI’s convention is the robust presence and participation of undergraduate students, which gives the whole environment a vibrant vibe. Their questions and interactions were terrific, and I learned a lot from them. As I have mentioned, attending a convention for a second time is much better than the first one, as you know what to expect and understand its dynamics and culture. Now, I will share some of the convention’s highlights:
Confirmation of the Republic of Korea’s soft power in Mexico The Republic of Korea was the invited country, and it was shocking to see how many papers, panels, round tables, and other activities were organized around it. This reflects the attractiveness of its popular culture among young people worldwide, but more importantly, the country’s public diplomacy strategy. I am almost certain that no other middle-power country is being studied in Mexico as much as Korea (outside the big powers). South Korea has become a beacon of PD, showcasing the effectiveness of a coordinated approach. The enactment of the 2016 Public Diplomacy Act and its ever-growing Korean wave, Hallyu, is just a fraction of its endeavors to win the hearts and minds of audiences overseas. A few examples of Korea’s PD strategy in Mexico are:
Many do not know that some Koreans migrated to Mexico at the beginning of the 20th century, and there is a museum about it in Merida, Yucatan. I am unsure if this is the first time there was an invited country to AMEI’s convention, but it was a total hit. I hope the AMEI leadership continues to designate invited countries. Creation of AMEI’s new committee on international communication and public and cultural diplomacy. After a few months of hard work, the first official meeting of the Committee of International Communication and Public and Cultural Diplomacy took place during the convention. It was amazing to see a lot of scholars participating in the meeting, including the Canadian leadership of the North American Cultural Diplomacy Initiative. The coordinator, Dr. Tania Gómez Zapata, worked hard to fulfill all the requirements for creating the committee and organizing its first meeting. The convention was the perfect launch, as the winner of AMEI’s best book award was granted to Cesar Villanueva for his most recent work titled Sombreros, Frida y Boom: Alteridades, Representaciones e Imágenes de México en el Mundo (2007-2012). Besides, Nicholas Cull gave the committee’s keynote lecture on Reputational Security (more on that in the following topic) The committee is now working on its 2025 program, so follow the committee to learn about its activities. Keynote lecture on Reputational Security by Nicholas Cull. We were honored to have Nicholas Cull at the convention, especially as a keynote speaker. He presented his work on Reputational Security, an intriguing concept that could replace Soft Power as the theoretical base of public diplomacy. His main argument is that soft power does not convey the concerns of most countries and that the reputation of a nation is not only essential to attract tourists and investments but, most importantly, to gain the support of the international community when its security is threatened. By elevating the priority of public diplomacy to a national security concern, there will be more investment in its implementation. Also, it expands the idea about the importance of the collectiveness of like-minded countries, moving beyond the individual nation. You can watch a November 5, 2024, presentation by the Center on Public Diplomacy about the topic here. Conclusion Overall, AMEI’s 37th convention was a great success. I am looking forward to the 38th meeting that will take place in Cancun from October 15 to 17, 2025. I was able to meet with people I usually encounter at ISA conventions in the United States, so having a “home” in Mexico with the new committee was a significant step in the study of international communication and public and cultural diplomacy. Being a member of a scholarly association is key to the field’s and personal development, so I encourage all people interested in these topics to join AMEI and the committee. We are especially looking for scholars and students across Mexico. DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are those of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer, or company
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![]() Here is an updated version of the blog post Artificial Intelligence and Diplomacy resources, including Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools, webpages, videos, studies, and articles. In the last nine months, there has been quite a surge of studies and articles about AI, diplomacy, and world affairs so that I have included two new sections, the first on journal articles and the second about studies. There is also information about using Machine Learning for teaching and learning. Please share new ones in the comment section! You can also read my blog posts about the subject here:
AI tools and application/experiments/usage Diplo AI Writer @ DiploFoundation is a DiploFoundation artificial intelligence writer who publishes blog posts about the subject, including the DiploFoundation AI Diary. HumAInism by DiploFoundation has some AI tools related to diplomacy and arts. Can ChatGPT Explain Geopolitics? is an exercise to compare two essays and test if you can identify the one written by AI. It is published by Foreign Policy magazine. Interactive webpage about the cost of AI in different languages (Tokenization fairness). Webpages of research centers and institutions Artificial Intelligence and Diplomacy by DiploFoundation. Artificial Intelligence by Digwatch (Geneva Internet Platform) AI Now Institute. Center for AI and Digital Policy Center for the Advancement of Trustworthy AI Deloitte AI Institute for Government Global Index on Responsible AI Global Partnership for AI Institute for Ethics in AI at the University of Oxford MILA, Quebec Artificial Intelligence Institute OECD AI Observatory Partnership on AI The AI Index. Stanford University Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence Tech Policy Press. UN-related sites Road Map for Digital Cooperation and its updated road map) Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology webpage Global Digital Compact (May 2023) High-Level Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence and its Interim Report: Governing AI for Humanity (December 2023) Summit of the Future UNESCO´s Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence Videos Artificial Intelligence and Diplomacy Webinar. UNITAR and UOC. (2023, February 15). AI and Diplomacy: Challenges and opportunities. UNITAR (2023, May 10) Integrating Artificial Intelligence into an Embassy’s Public Diplomacy Workflows. Center on Public Diplomacy (2023, October 18) Technologies of Tomorrow: A Conversation with Dr. Eric Schmidt. Carnegie Endowment (2023, January 11). DiploFoundation´s webdebates Will AI take over diplomatic reporting? WebDebate #56. DiploFoundation (2023, February 7). What role can AI play in diplomatic negotiation? WebDebate #57. DiploFoundation (2023, March 7). How to Train Diplomats to Deal with AI and Data? WebDebate #58. DiploFoundation (2023, April 4). What Can We Learn About AI Ethics and Governance from Non-Western Thought? WebDebate #59. DiploFoundation (2023, May 2). AI for Peacemaking: new tools and opportunities for mediators. WebDebate #30. DiploFoundation (2019, June 19). AI on the international agenda - where do we go from here? WebDebate #26. DiploFoundation (2018, December 4). Books Haroon Sheikh, H., Prins, C., & Schrijvers, E. (2023). Mission AI: The New System Technology. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21448-6 Journal articles Adler-Nissen, R., & Eggeling, K. A. (2022). Blended Diplomacy: The Entanglement and Contestation of Digital Technologies in Everyday Diplomatic Practice. European Journal of International Relations, 28(3), 640-666. https://doi.org/10.1177/13540661221107837 (Open access). d’Alva, O. A., & Paraná, E. (2024). Official statistics and big data in Latin America: Data enclosures and counter-movements. Big Data & Society, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517241229696 (Open access). Bareis, J. (2024). The trustification of AI. Disclosing the bridging pillars that tie trust and AI together. Big Data & Society, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517241249430 (Open access) Bjola, C. & Manor, I. (2023, April 25). ChatGPT: The end of diplomacy as we know it. Global Policy. Bjola, C. & Manor, I. (2024). Digital diplomacy in the age of technological acceleration: three impact scenarios of generative artificial intelligence. Place Brand Public Diplomacy. (Online first). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-023-00323-4 (Open access). Bjola, C. & Manor, I. (2024). First contact: integrating generative AI into digital diplomatic intelligence. Place Brand Public Diplomacy (Online first). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-024-00333-w Di Martino, L., & Ford, H. (2024). Navigating uncertainty: public diplomacy vs. AI. Place Brand Public Diplomacy (Online first). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-024-00330-z (Open access). Erskine, T. (2024). AI and the future of IR: Disentangling flesh-and-blood, institutional, and synthetic moral agency in world politics. Review of International Studies, 50(3), 534-559. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210524000202 (Open access) Fredheim, R. & Pamment, J. (2024). Assessing the risks and opportunities posed by AI‐enhanced influence. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy. (Online first). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-023-00322-5 (open access) Garcia, E. V. (2024). The Other in the machine: diplomacy and the AI conundrum. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy. (Online first). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-024-00329-6 Gillespie, T. (2024). Generative AI and the politics of visibility. Big Data & Society, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517241252131 (Open access). Gourlet, P., Ricci, D., & Crépel, M. (2024). Reclaiming artificial intelligence accounts: A plea for a participatory turn in artificial intelligence inquiries. Big Data & Society, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517241248093 (Open access) Gruber, J., & Hargittai, E. (2023). The importance of algorithm skills for informed Internet use. Big Data & Society, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517231168100 (Open access) Gruber, J., Hargittai, E., Karaoglu, G., Brombach, L. (2021). Algorithm Awareness as an Important Internet Skill: The Case of Voice Assistants. International Journal of Communication, 15, 1770-1788. (Open access). Jie, X. & Wang, C. (2022). A Preliminary Analysis of the Impact of Artificial Intelligence on World Peace. International Journal of Frontiers in Sociology, 4(9), 87-92. https://doi.org/10.25236/IJFS.2022.040913. (Open access) Hakala, U. (2024). Using AI in the creation of municipality slogans. Place Brand Public Diplomacy (Online first). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-024-00347-4 (Open access) Huang, Z.A. (2024). Terminology, AI bias, and the risks of current digital public diplomacy practices. Place Brand Public Diplomacy (Online first). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-024-00324-x Human-Machine Communication Special Edition, Volume 7, 2024 https://doi.org/10.30658/hmc.7.1 Ver detalles Kipngeno, J. R. (2019). How Science and Technology Shapes Diplomacy. International Academic Journal of Social Sciences and Education, 2(2), 42-52. Konovalova, M. (2023). AI and Diplomacy. Challenges and Opportunities. Journal of Liberty and International Affairs9(2). https://doi.org/10.47305/JLIA2392699k Lenat, D. & Marcus, G. (2023, July 31). Getting from Generative AI to Trustworthy AI: What LLMs might learn from Cyc. ArXiv: 2308.04445. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2308.04445 Manfredi-Sánchez, J.L. &Morales, P.S. (2024). Generative AI and the future for China’s diplomacy. Place Brand Public Diplomacy (Online first). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-024-00328-7 (Open access). Medrado, A., & Verdegem, P. (2024). Participatory action research in critical data studies: Interrogating AI from a South–North approach. Big Data & Society, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517241235869 (Open access). Ng, L. H. X., Robertson, D. C., & Carley, K. M. (2024). Cyborgs for strategic communication on social media. Big Data & Society, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517241231275 (Open access). Peterson-Salahuddin, C. (2024). Repairing the harm: Toward an algorithmic reparations approach to hate speech content moderation. Big Data & Society, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517241245333 (Open access). Ricaurte, P., Gómez-Cruz, E., & Siles, I. (2024). Algorithmic governmentality in Latin America: Sociotechnical imaginaries, neocolonial soft power, and authoritarianism. Big Data & Society, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517241229697 (Open access) Sevin, E. & Eken, M. E. (2024). Yet another turn? Prioritising the needs of diplomacy over the capabilities of generative AI. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy. (Online first). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-024-00325-w (Open access) Shandler, R., & Gomez, M. A. (2022). The hidden threat of cyber-attacks – undermining public confidence in government. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 20(4), 359–374. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2022.2112796 Seto, K. S. (2024). Platform sub-imperialism. Big Data & Society, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517241249410(Open access). Stinson, C. & Vlaad, S. (2024). A feeling for the algorithm: Diversity, expertise, and artificial intelligence. Big Data & Society, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517231224247 (Open Access). Tacheva, J. and Ramasubramanian, S. (2023). AI Empire: Unraveling the interlocking systems of oppression in generative AI’s global order. Big Data and Society, 10(2), p. 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517231219241 (Open access) Tallberg, J., Erman, E., Furendal, M., Geith, J., Klamberg, M., Lundgren M. (2023). The Global Governance of Artificial Intelligence: Next Steps for Empirical and Normative Research. International Studies Review, 25(3). https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viad040 Troncoso Heredia, M. O. & Dueñas Correa, Y. K. (2023). Diplomacia e inteligencia artificial. Análisis desde el impacto en las relaciones internacionales entre las naciones. Tse´De, 6(2), 26-62. https://doi.org/10.60100/tsede.v6i2.149 (Open access). Valente, J. C. L., & Grohmann, R. (2024). Critical data studies with Latin America: Theorizing beyond data colonialism. Big Data & Society, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517241227875 (Open access) van der Vlist, F., Helmond, A., & Ferrari, F. (2024). Big AI: Cloud infrastructure dependence and the industrialisation of artificial intelligence. Big Data & Society, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517241232630 (Open access) Williams, E. R. (2022). ‘New-new’ diplomacy A new technological dawn. Digital Policy Studies 1(1), 27-38. https://doi.org/10.36615/dps.v1i1.1162 Xia, L.Q. (2024). Diplomatic relationship-building in the age of generative AI: the European Union and China. Place Brand Public Diplomacy. (Online first). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-023-00321-6 (Open access). Studies Allen, G. (2022, October 11). Choking off China´s Access to the Future of AI. Center for Strategic & International Studies. Anthony, A., Sharma, L. & Noor, E. (2024, April 30). Advancing a More Global Agenda for Trustworthy Artificial Intelligence. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Bal. R. & Gill, I. (2020, September). Policy Approaches to Artificial Intelligence Based Technologies in China, European Union and the United States. Duke Global Working Paper 26. Bjola, C. (2019, October 19). Diplomacy in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. Real Institute Elcano. Bjola, C. (2020). Diplomacy in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. EDA Working Paper. Emirates Diplomatic Academy. Bremmer, I. & Kupchan, C. (2022, January 3). Risk 2: Technopolar World. Top Risks 2022. p. 5-6. Euroasian Group. Bremmer, I & Suleyman, M. (2023). The AI Power Paradox. Foreign Affairs. Cesareo, S. & White, J. (2023, June 23). The Global AI Index. Tortoise Media. Cimoli, M. (Coord.). (2018). Datos, algoritmos y políticas: La redefinición del mundo digital. 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Proceedings of the International Conference on Cybersecurity and Cybercrime Vol. X. European Migration Network. (2022). The use of digitalisation and artificial intelligence in migration management: Joint EMN-OECD Inform. Franke, U. (2021). Artificial Intelligence diplomacy: Artificial Intelligence governance as a new European Union external policy tool. Policy Department for Economic, Scientific and Quality of Life Policies. Directorate-General for Internal Policies. European Parliament. Government AI Readiness Index 2022. Horowitz, M. C., Allen, G. C., Saravalle, E., Cho, A., Frederick, K. & Scharre, P. (2018, July). Artificial Intelligence and International Security. Center for a New American Security. IBM Global AI Adoption Index 2022. Lazard Geopolitical Advisory. (2023, October). Geopolitics of Artificial Intelligence. Mahrenbach, E. (Ed.). (2023). Governing Artificial Intelligence. 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Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. Harvard University. Voo, J., Hemani, I. & Cassidy, D. (2022, September). National Cyber Power Index 2022. Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School. Zhang, D., Lawrence, C., Sellitto, M., Wald, R., Schaake, M., Ho, D. E., Altman, R. & Grotto, A. (2022, May). Enhancing International Cooperation in AI Research: The Case for a Multilateral AI Research Institute. The Stanford Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence Blog posts and news articles Adebahr, C. (2023, October 11). Why AI will Change the Core of Foreign Policymaking. Global Policy. Fainman, A. A. (2019). The Problem with Opaque AI. The Thinker, 82(4), 44-55. https://doi.org/10.36615/thethinker.v82i4.373 Cocking, S. (2016, September 19). Using algorithms to achieve digital diplomacy. A conversation with Elad Ratson, Director of R&D at Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Irish Tech News. Cuéllar, M.-F. & Sheehan, M. (2023, June 19). AI Is Winning the AI Race. Foreign Policy. Davies, H., Mckernan, B., and Sabbagh, D. (2023, December 1). ´The Gospel´: how Israel uses AI to select bombing targets in Gaza. The Guardian. Digwatch (n.d). GGE -Group of Governmental Experts- on lethal autonomous weapons systems. Digwatch. Digwatch. (2019, February 5). Artificial intelligence and diplomacy: A new tool for diplomacy? EVENT REPORT. Digwatch. Geneva Internet Platform. Digwatch. (2023, July 17). UN Security Council convenes to discuss AI risks. Digwatch. Geneva Internet Platform. Digwatch (2023, December 25). UN General Assembly adopted resolution on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems or LAWS. Digwatch. DiploFoundation. (2023, May 3). First full AI-reporting from the UN meeting. DiploFoundation blog. DiploFoundation. (2023, May 3). AI-based report of United Nations Security Council debate marks the start of a new era in multilateral diplomacy. DiploFoundation blog. Elia Valori, G. (2023, July 8). 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Presentation to the Symposium on Algorithmic Government. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. Lederer, E. (2023, July 3). UN Council to hold first meeting on potential threats of artificial intelligence to global peace. AP News. Liu, S. & Patton, D. (2023, December 22). China bans export of rare earths processing tech over national security. Reuters. Manor, I. (2023, February 21). The AI Moves In: ChatGPT’s Impact on Digital Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, March 30). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, April 4). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy - Part 2. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, April 18). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy - Part 3. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, June 15). AI’s Impact on Public Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, June 27). The Many Races that will shape AI. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, July 4). Real Fakes and the Future of Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, August 15). Towards the Strategic Use of AI in Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy blog. Manor, I. (2024, May 23). Digital Diplomacy and the Rights of AI. Exploring Digital Diplomacy blog. Manor, I. (2024, June 3). Through the Looking Glass: Digital Diplomacy and AI Biases. Exploring Digital Diplomacy blog. Manor, I. (2024, June 10). Digital Diplomacy in the Age of Visual AI. Exploring Digital Diplomacy blog. Marcus, G. (2023, November 23). Critical national security questions should not be decided unilaterally by unelected tech leaders. Marcus at AI. Matania, E. & Sommer, U. (2023, November 20). Tech titans, cyber commons and the war in Ukraine: An incipient shift in international relations. International Relations, 0 (0). https://doi.org/10.1177/00471178231211500 (Open access). McCaffrey, C. R., Jones, O., Krumbmüller, F., & Bell, D. 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On automata, symbolic models, neural networks and machine learning: a brief history of AI. CCCB Lab. Petrov, A., La Malfa, E., Torr, P. H.S., & Bibi, A. (2023, May 17). Language Model Tokenizers Introduce Unfairness Between Languages. ArXiv:2350.1542. Ponzio, R., Nudhara Yusuf, N., Mallinson, F. & Shahrukh, M. (2023). Future of International Cooperation Report 2023. The Stimson Center, Doha Forum, and Global Institute for Strategic Research. René, G., Sayegh, P., Petersen, C., Pletts, C., Richardson, D., Stockburger, P., & Tanenblatt, E. (2023, July). The Future of Global AI Governance. Verses. Sauer, P. (2023, Sept. 8). Elon Musk ´committed evil´ with Starlink order, says Ukrainian official. The Guardian. Schmidt, E. (2022). AI, Great Power Competition & National Security. Daedalus, 151(2), p.288-298. https://doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_01916. Scolari, C.A. (2023, February 7). Artificial Intelligence: Half Wanting, Half Fearing How will new AI-based tools change the way we think and perceive the world? CCCB Lab. Scott, B., Heumann, S., & Lorenz, P. (2018). Artificial Intelligence and Foreign Policy. Stiftung Neue Veranwortung. Shahbaz, A., Funk, A., Brody, J., Vesteinsson, K., Baker, G., Grothe, C., Barak, M., Masinsin, M., Modi, R., & Sutterlin, E. (eds.) (2023). Freedom on the Net 2023: The Repressive Power of Artificial Intelligence. Freedom House. Sheehan, M (2022, October 27). Biden’s Unprecedented Semiconductor Bet. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Strachan, G. & Manor, I. (2023, July 14). ‘I can be a bastard too’- ChatGPT’s Real Contribution to Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Tarar, Z. (2023, February 23). Analysis - Could AI change the business of diplomacy? The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium. Tarar, Z. (2023, February 27). Analysis - Which AI tools should diplomats use today? The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium. Tarar, Z. (2023, August 28). Analysis - Harnessing AI for diplomacy: Five tools to make your work easier. The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium. Teleanu, S (2023, August 21). A journey of discovery: Using simulation and AI to teach and learn about digital governance. DiploFoundation Blog. US Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy. (2023, June 14). The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Public Diplomacy: ACPD Official Meeting Minutes, June 14, 2023. Williams, A., Micali, M. & Gebru, T. (2022, October 23). The Exploited Labor Behind Artificial Intelligence. NOEMA. Courses Artificial Intelligence: Technology, Governance, and Policy Frameworks online course offered by DiploFoundation. Starts February 2025. Artificial Intelligence for Beginners – A Curriculum offered by Microsoft. IA para todos (AI for everyone) offered by DeepLearning.AI at Coursera, thought by Andrew Ng. (some parts are provided in several languages). IBM: AI for Everyone: Master the Basics offered by edX. Machine learning and AI offered by Google (includes several courses). Information about using AI for teaching and learning Mollick, E. (2022, December 13). How to…use AI to teach some of the hardest skills. One Useful Thing blog. Mollick, E. (2023, January 24). The practical guide to using AI to do stuff. One Useful Thing blog. Mollick, E. (2023, March 17). Using AI to make teaching easier & more impactful. One Useful Thing blog. Mollick, E. (2023, July 15). How to Use AI to Do Stuff: An Opinionated Guide. One Useful Thing blog. Mollick E., & Mollick, L. (2024, April 21). Instructors as Innovators: A future-focused approach to new AI learning opportunities, with prompts. Wharton? Mollick, E. Video series on Practical AI for Teachers and Students. YouTube. Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura. (2024). Guía para el uso de IA generativa en educación e investigación. UNESCO. (2023). Technology in Education: A Tool on Whose Terms? Global Education Monitoring Report. UNESCO DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are those of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company. ![]() While preparing an article about the challenges of gastrodiplomacy at the local level, I came across a wide range of studies on the subject, which lies in the intersection of place branding, food heritage, gastronomic diplomacy, and paradiplomacy. You can also read my post on the subject: delectable-diplomacy-gastrodiplomacy.html more-than-tacos-mexicos-scrumptious-yet-unknown-gastrodiplomacy.html ten-years-later-mexicos-traditional-cuisine-and-gastrodiplomacy-efforts.html Here is a list of some works on these topics: Gastrodiplomacy Center on Public Diplomacy. (2014). Gastrodiplomacy. Public Diplomacy Magazine, 11. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5be3439285ede1f05a46dafe/t/5be3511daa4a996fcaa498f3/1541624135259/GastroDiplomacy Chappel-Sokol, S. (2013). Culinary Diplomacy: Breaking Bread to Win Hearts and Minds. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, 8(2), 161-183. https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191X-12341244 DeSoucey, M. (2010). Gastronationalism: Food Traditions and Authenticity. Politics in the European Union. American Sociological Review, 75(3), 432–455. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122410372226 González, S. M. (2021). Una aproximacion conceptual y literaria a la gastrodiplomacia como conductora de marca de un destino. PASOS Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 19(4), 737-751. https://doi.org/10.25145/j.pasos.2021.19.048 Lee, S. T. & Kim, H. S. (2021). Food fight: gastrodiplomacy and nation branding in Singapore’s UNESCO bid to recognize Hawker culture. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 17(2), 205-217. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-020-00166-3 Mayer-Heft, G. y Samuel-Azran, T. (2022). Food for Thought: An Empirical Analysis of the Efficacy of Gastrodiplomacy. Food Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 13(1), 25-40. https://doi.org/10.18848/2160-1933/CGP/v13i01/25-40. Nihayati, A., Pertiwi, E. A. & Inov Haripa. T. (2022). The Analysis of South Korean Gastrodiplomacy Towards the Increase of South Korean Kimchi Export. Journal of World Trade Studies, 6(2), 53-66. https://doi.org/10.22146/jwts.v6i2.3607 Nirwandy, N. & Azran Awang, A. (2014) Conceptualizing Public Diplomacy Social Convention Culinary: Engaging Gastro Diplomacy Warfare for Economic Branding. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 130, 325–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.04.038 Pham, M. J. (2013). Food as Communication: A Case Study of South Korea’s Gastrodiplomacy. Journal of International Services, 22(1), 1-22. https://thediplomatistdotcom.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/jis-spring-2013-issue-gastrodiplomacy.pdf Rockower, Paul. (2011). Projecting Taiwan: Taiwan´s Public Diplomacy Outreach. Issues and Studies, 47(1), 107-152. Rockower, P- (2012). Recipes for gastrodiplomacy. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 8(3), 235-246. https://doi.org/10.1057/pb.2012.17 Rockower, P. (2014). The State of Gastrodiplomacy. Public Diplomacy Magazine, 11, 11-15. Rockower, P. (2019). A Guide to Gastrodiplomacy. In N. Snow y N. J. Cull (Eds.). Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, second edition, (pp. 205-212). https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Handbook-of-Public-Diplomacy/Snow-Cull/p/book/9781138610873 The Economist. (2002, February 21). Food as ambassador, Thailand’s gastrodiplomacy. The Economist.https://www.economist.com/asia/2002/02/21/thailands-gastro-diplomacy. Wilson, R. (2011). Cocina Peruana Para el Mundo: Gastrodiplomacy, the Culinary Nation Brand and the Context of National Cuisine. Exchange: The Journal of Public Diplomacy 2 (1), p. 13-20. Zhang, J. (2015). The Food of the Worlds: Mapping and Comparing Contemporary Gastrodiplomacy Campaigns. International Journal of Communication, 9, 568-591. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/2847 Place branding Askegaard, S. y Kjeldgaard, D. (2007). Here, There and Everywhere: Place Branding and Gastronomical Globalization in a Macromarketing Perspective. Journal of Macromarketing, 27(2), 138-147. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276146707300068 Carrillo Nuño, E. G., Lara Pacheco, R. F. y Vidales Astello, B.A. (2019). Modelización de la atractividad territorial de las metrópolis. Política, Globalidad y Ciudadania, 5(10), 17-42. https://doi.org/10.29105/pgc5.10-1 Kihlgren Grandi, L. (2023). Branding, Diplomacy, and Inclusion: The Role of Migrant Cuisines in Cities´ Local and International Action. Societies 13(7), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc13070151 Paradiplomacy Iglesias, M., y Mancini, N. (2023). Criterios para evaluar buenas prácticas paradiplomáticas. En M. Iglesias, N. Mancini, J. A. Schiavon y P. Garza. (Coords.). Acción Exterior desde la mirada regional: Los casos de California, Catalunya, Guanajuato, Jujuy y Renania del Norte-Westphalia (pp. 27-43). Fundación Konard Adenauer, Paradiplomacia.org y Gobierno de Catalunya Delegación en México y en Centroamérica. https://www.kas.de/es/web/mexiko/einzeltitel/-/content/buenas-practicas-y-aproximaciones-para-la-medicion-de-la-accion-exterior-desde-la-mirada-regional Lara Pacheco, R., Meléndez Yùdico, J. A. y Zapata Garesché, E. D. (2015). Cuadernos para la Internacionalización de las Ciudades número 5 Acción internacional para una ciudad atractiva. Proyecto AL-LAs. https://acimedellin.org/wp-content/uploads/publicaciones/Cuaderno-5-Accion-Internacional-para-una_Ciudad-Atractiva.pdf Villarruel Reynoso, D., Lara Pacheco, R. F. y Loza Vázquez, M. G. (2023). Paradiplomacia y territorios periféricos: Una aproximación a través de casos de estudio. En D. Villarruel Reynoso (Coord.). Paradiplomacia municipal y territorios periféricos (pp. 19-38). Universidad de Guadalajara, Centro Universitario de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Unidad de Apoyo Editorial. http://www.publicaciones.cucsh.udg.mx/kiosko/2023/Paradiplomacia.pdf Food Heritage Bak-Geller Corona, S., Matta, R., y de Suremain, CÉ. (2019). Patrimonios alimentarios. Entre consensos y tensiones. El Colegio de San Luis. https://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/divers20-04/010078486.pdf Cox‐Hall, A. (2019). Heritage‐prospecting and the past as future(s) in Peru. Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology, 24(2), 331–350. https://doi.org/10.1111/jlca.12402 De Miguel Molina, M. et al. (2016) “Intangible Heritage and Gastronomy: The Impact of UNESCO Gastronomy Elements”. Journal of Culinary Science and Technology, 14(4), 293-310. https://doi.org/10.1080/15428052.2015.1129008 Hernández-Ramírez, J. (2018). Cuando la alimentación se convierte en gastronomía. Procesos de activación patrimonial de tradiciones alimentarias. Cultura-Hombre-Sociedad 28(1), 154-176. http://dx.doi.org/10.7770/0719-2789.2018.cuhso.01.a01 Romagnoli, M. (2019). Gastronomic heritage elements at UNESCO: problems, reflections, and interpretations of a new heritage category. International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 14, 158–171. https://www.ijih.org/volumes/article/844 Matta, R. (2019). Mexico’s ethnic culinary heritage and cocineras tradicionales (traditional female cooks). Food and Foodways, 27(3), 211-231. https://doi.org/10.1080/07409710.2019.1646481 Matta, R. (2021). Documenting the UNESCO feast: stories of women´s ‘empowerment’ and programmatic cooking. Social Anthropology /Antropologique sociale, 29(1), 188-204. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-8676.12990 Medina, F. X. (2009). Mediterranean diet, culture and heritage: Challenges for a new conception. Public Health Nutrition, (12)9A, 1618-1620. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980009990450 Moncusí A. & Santamarina B. (2008). Bueno para comer, bueno para patrimonializar. La propuesta de la cocina mexicana como patrimonio inmaterial de la humanidad. In M Alvarez and FX Medina (Eds) Patrimonio cultural y alimentación entre América y Europa, (pp. 127–142). Icaria. UNESCO (n.d.). Proclamation of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity (2001-2005). https://ich.unesco.org/en/proclamation-of-masterpieces-00103. Mexico´s gastrodiplomacy Arkansas en Español. (2010, October 29). Segunda Convención Anual 2010 de la Asociación de Restaurantes Mexicanos en Little Rock. Viva Arkansas. http://www.vivaarkansas.com/notas.asp?id=307. CONACULTA. (2004). Pueblo de Maíz. La Cocina Ancestral de México. Ritos, Ceremonias y practicas culturales de la cocina de los mexicanos. Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes Ciudad de México. https://patrimonioculturalyturismo.cultura.gob.mx/publi/Pueblo_de_maiz/pueblo_maiz.pdf. CONACULTA. (2005). Capítulo 1: El Expediente Pueblo de Maíz, La Cocina Ancestral de México. In Patrimonio Cultural y Turismo. Cuadernos, No. 10. pp. 13-124. Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes. Ciudad de México. Foro Mundial de la Gastronomía Mexicana. (2018). About Us. https://www.ccgm.mx/fmgm/VI/about-us/. García Ocejo, M. (2020, March 22). Cómo la UNESCO designó a la gastronomía mexicana Patrimonio de la Humanidad. El Heraldo de México. https://heraldodemexico.com.mx/cultura/2020/3/22/como-la-unesco-designo-la-gastronomia-mexicana-patrimonio-de-la-humanidad-161901.html. Instituto de los Mexicanos en el Exterior -IME-. (2005). 25ª Jornada Informativa del IME: Gastronomía y Cultura Mexicana. Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. IME. (2006). 38ª Jornada Informativa del IME: Programa Trinacional de Gastronomía Mexicana. Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. IME. (2017). IME participa en el V Foro Mundial de la Gastronomía Mexicana. Press Bulletin. Secretataria de Relaciones Exteriores October, 5. https://www.gob.mx/ime/prensa/ime-participa-en-v-foro-mundial-de-la-gastronomia-mexicana?idiom=es. López Morales, G. (2005). Recapitulación. In Patrimonio Cultural y Turismo. Cuadernos, No. 10. Pp. 159-163. Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes. Ciudad de México. Márquez Lartigue, R. (2021). Mexico´s unknown gastrodiplomacy strategy in the early 2000s in the United States: Contribution to a wider IR discipline. (Unpublished article). Martínez M., P. S. (2005, October 24). “Comiendo con los Muertos” en la Semana de Gastronomía y Cultura Mexicana en EU, Canadá y México. Azteca 21. http://www.azteca21.com/2005/10/24/comiendo-con-los-muertos-en-la-semana-de-gastronomia-y-cultura-mexicana-en-eu-canada-y-mexico/. Ponce, Karla. (2005, October 28). Día de Muertos en Tres Países. El Universal. https://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/cultura/45612.html. Protocolo. (2007, October 29). Inicia V Semana Trinacional de Gastronomía y Cultura Mexicana. Protocolo. https://www.protocolo.com.mx/gourmet/semana-trinacional-de-gastronomia-y-cultura-mexicana/. Protocolo. (2009, October 30). Inicia V Semana Trinacional de Gastronomía y Cultura Mexicana. Protocolo. http://www.protocolo.com.mx/gourmet/inicia-v-semana-trinacional-de-gastronomia-y-cultura-mexicana/. Ruiz Massieu, Claudia. (2015). Presentación Ven a Comer. Ven a Comer. Secretaría de Turismo, p. 7-8. Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores -SRE-. (2007). Primer Informe de Labores. Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. Ciudad de México. SRE. (2011). Quinto Informe de Labores. Secretaría de Relaciones Exterioeres. Ciudad de México. SRE. (2012). Sexto Informe de Labores. Secretaría de Relaciones Exterioeres. Ciudad de México. SRE. (2016, June 17). La Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores presenta nuevas Acciones a favor de la Política de Fomento a la Gastronomía Nacional. Press Bulletin. https://www.gob.mx/sre/prensa/la-secretaria-de-relaciones-exteriores-presenta-nuevas-acciones-a-favor-de-la-politica-de-fomento-a-la-gastronomia-nacional?idiom=es. UNESCO -Patrimonio Inmaterial-. (2010. La cocina tradicional mexicana: Una cultura comunitaria, ancestral y viva y el paradigma de Michoacán. Página de Internet UNESCO. https://ich.unesco.org/es/RL/la-cocina-tradicional-mexicana-una-cultura-comunitaria-ancestral-y-viva-y-el-paradigma-de-michoacan-00400?RL=00400 ![]() I returned from the 65th Convention of the International Studies Association that took place a few weeks ago in San Francisco. Participating in the convention gets better every time you do it. From my very anxious first-time attendance in Nashville in 2021 to the 2024 convention, it feels like light years of difference! So, it is worth considering attending constantly to get the most out of every convention. So, in San Francisco, even though I am a practitioner in a sea of academics, I did not feel uncomfortable as in previous experiences. In several panels, some welcomed the participation of practitioners. Choosing which panels to attend was extremely difficult, as there were many great offerings. However, I want to highlight “Public Diplomacy in Other Words” and " Tech Diplomacy: Challenges and Opportunities.” Public Diplomacy in Other Words The first one was organized by Kadir Jun Ayhan, a professor at Ewha Womans University and editor-in-chief of the Journal of Public Diplomacy. In a conscious effort to promote different perspectives from the Anglo-speaking world that dominates the literature on Public Diplomacy, Kadir led an effort to review articles published in various languages. Those who attended the session were fortunate to hear an analysis of public diplomacy articles published in Chinese, French, Russian, Turkish, and Indonesian. Luckily for those who could not participate in the session, the Journal of Public Diplomacy will publish a special edition with additional languages. So, make sure you look for it in the summer. Looking into the production of articles about the topic in other languages is an excellent idea for anybody interested in public diplomacy. There is a greater need for diversity of perspectives. The effort faced a significant challenge because the term in some languages has different meanings, so they had to agree to focus on the term Public Diplomacy. Besides, in many instances, country brand and soft power are used interchangeably with public diplomacy, thus complicating the analysis. Tech Diplomacy: Challenges and Opportunities The second panel, titled “Tech Diplomacy: Challenges and Opportunities,” had most of the panelists coming from UK universities, which was quite interesting for the different perspectives of US-based scholars. The panel showcased how much the term Tech Diplomacy has changed since Denmark designated the first Tech Ambassador in 2017. Check out my previous posts: digital-diplomacy-40-tech-diplomacy.html and why-denmark-sent-a-tech-ambassador-to-silicon-valley.html The hype AI has caused, together with different efforts to regulate machine learning and the ever-growing concentration of power by tech companies, has changed the whole environment of tech diplomacy today. There was a meaningful discussion about how MFAs and other ministries deal with the issue. In some instances, they have established new departments and designs. It highlighted the existing divide between cyber and tech diplomacies and the competition these areas now have inside and outside the ministries. In most countries of the Global South, there are no known Tech Ambassadors or Tech Envoys except for Brazil, the great diplomat Eugenio V. Garcia. One of the reasons why I attended that panel was that Prof. Andre Barrinha from the University of Bath was the panel's co-chair. He recently wrote a magnificent article titled “Cyber-diplomacy: The Emergence of Transient Field” (it is open access). In the article, in a succinct but exquisite way, Prof. Barrinha explains how some policies, such as cyber security, become part of the realm of diplomats. It is an excellent explanation of how actors engage in diplomatic functions without officially being diplomats. Diplomatization is the keyword here. I encourage to read it to everybody interested in understanding how certain topics and actors turn into a diplomatic world. Conventions are like the Oscars, where you can find all the film stars you love in one place. The difference is that most well-known academics are more approachable and always open to conversation. The number of international participants was encouraging. Still, it was deplorable to see that some fantastic panels, such as “Passport Inequality: Research and Conference Travel Challenges for Global South Scholars” and the one on women in academia, did not have a quorum. I am sure other ways exist to get the word out on these critical topics. To everybody´s delight, there was an array of psychedelic carpets to look at on the different floors, towers, and hotels where the convention was held. The free coffee at the exhibition´s coffee breaks was one of the best I had at a convention! Congratulations to the sponsors who gave us the necessary caffeine to withstand the whirlwind of activities. I am always optimistic, but the situation on the streets of San Francisco makes me wonder how, in one of the wealthiest metropolitan areas of the world, a few miles from the extraordinarily powerful and wealthy tech industry, the government and the people cannot find a solution for all the persons who are on the street fighting additions and homelessness. What will the future bring if this happens in San Francisco? Let´s think about the people in Gaza, Ukraine, Afghanistan, and other nations that have been left behind and nearly forgotten. The ply of the people of San Francisco calls for us to find a solution to the inequality problem in the world. Humanity cannot truly advance if people are hungry, homeless, and fighting all sorts of issues. Seeing more scholars from Mexico and other Latin American countries attending was encouraging. I was delighted to meet and talk with many great scholars from Latin America and Spain. I hope to see you all in Chicago in 2025. Here is an updated version of the blog post Artificial Intelligence and Diplomacy resources, including Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools, webpages, videos, studies, and articles.
I added a new section about courses on AI and diplomacy. There is also information about using Machine Learning for teaching and learning. Please share new ones in the comment section! You can also read my blog posts about the subject here:
AI tools and application/experiments/usage Diplo AI Writer @ DiploFoundation is a DiploFoundation artificial intelligence writer who publishes blog posts about the subject, including the DiploFoundation AI Diary. HumAInism by DiploFoundation has some AI tools related to diplomacy and arts. Can ChatGPT Explain Geopolitics? is an exercise to compare two essays and test if you can identify the one written by AI. It is published by Foreign Policy magazine. Interactive webpage about the cost of AI in different languages (Tokenization fairness). Webpages of research centers and institutions Artificial Intelligence and Diplomacy by DiploFoundation. Artificial Intelligence by Digwatch (Geneva Internet Platform) AI Now Institute. Center for AI and Digital Policy Center for the Advancement of Trustworthy AI Deloitte AI Institute for Government Global Index on Responsible AI Global Partnership for AI Institute for Ethics in AI at the University of Oxford MILA, Quebec Artificial Intelligence Institute OECD AI Observatory Partnership on AI The AI Index. Stanford University Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence Tech Policy Press. UN-related sites Road Map for Digital Cooperation and its updated road map) Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology webpage Global Digital Compact (May 2023) High-Level Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence and its Interim Report: Governing AI for Humanity (December 2023) Summit of the Future UNESCO´s Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence Videos Artificial Intelligence and Diplomacy Webinar. UNITAR and UOC. (2023, February 15). AI and Diplomacy: Challenges and opportunities. UNITAR (2023, May 10) Integrating Artificial Intelligence into an Embassy’s Public Diplomacy Workflows. Center on Public Diplomacy (2023, October 18) Technologies of Tomorrow: A Conversation with Dr. Eric Schmidt. Carnegie Endowment (2023, January 11). DiploFoundation´s webdebates Will AI take over diplomatic reporting? WebDebate #56. DiploFoundation (2023, February 7). What role can AI play in diplomatic negotiation? WebDebate #57. DiploFoundation (2023, March 7). How to Train Diplomats to Deal with AI and Data? WebDebate #58. DiploFoundation (2023, April 4). What Can We Learn About AI Ethics and Governance from Non-Western Thought? WebDebate #59. DiploFoundation (2023, May 2). AI for Peacemaking: new tools and opportunities for mediators. WebDebate #30. DiploFoundation (2019, June 19). AI on the international agenda - where do we go from here? WebDebate #26. DiploFoundation (2018, December 4). Studies and articles Adebahr, C. (2023, October 11). Why AI will Change the Core of Foreign Policymaking. Global Policy. Allen, G. (2022, October 11). Choking off China´s Access to the Future of AI. Center for Strategic & International Studies. Bjola, C. (2019, October 19). Diplomacy in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. Real Institute Elcano. Bjola, C. (2020). Diplomacy in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. EDA Working Paper. Emirates Diplomatic Academy. Bjola, C. & Manor, I. (2023, April 25). ChatGPT: The end of diplomacy as we know it. Global Policy. Bremmer, I. & Kupchan, C. (2022, January 3). Risk 2: Technopolar World. Top Risks 2022. p. 5-6. Euroasian Group. Cesareo, S. & White, J. (2023, June 23). The Global AI Index. Tortoise Media. Cocking, S. (2016, September 19). Using algorithms to achieve digital diplomacy. A conversation with Elad Ratson, Director of R&D at Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Irish Tech News. Corvalan, J. G. (2023). Propuesta de regulación y recomendaciones de inteligencia artificial en el mundo: sintesis de principales aspectos. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Cuéllar, M.-F. & Sheehan, M. (2023, June 19). AI Is Winning the AI Race. Foreign Policy. Deloitte AI Institute for Government & Google Cloud. (2022). Using Artificial Intelligence (AI) to Modernize American Statecraft. Davies, H., Mckernan, B., and Sabbagh, D. (2023, December 1). ´The Gospel´: how Israel uses AI to select bombing targets in Gaza. The Guardian. Department of State. (2023, October). Enterprise. Artificial Intelligence Strategy FY2024-FY2025: Empowering Diplomacy thought Responsible AI. Dickow, M. and Jacob, D. (2018). The Global Debate on the Future of Artificial Intelligence. Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik [SWV] Comment No. 23, p. 7. Digwatch (n.d). GGE -Group of Governmental Experts- on lethal autonomous weapons systems. Digwatch. Digwatch. (2019, February 5). Artificial intelligence and diplomacy: A new tool for diplomacy? EVENT REPORT. Digwatch. Geneva Internet Platform. Digwatch. (2023, July 17). UN Security Council convenes to discuss AI risks. Digwatch. Geneva Internet Platform. Digwatch (2023, December 25). UN General Assembly adopted resolution on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems or LAWS. Digwatch. DiploFoundation. (2019). Mapping the challenges and opportunities of artificial intelligence for the conduct of diplomacy. DiploFoundation and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland. DiploFoundation. (2023, May 3). First full AI-reporting from the UN meeting. DiploFoundation blog. DiploFoundation. (2023, May 3). AI-based report of United Nations Security Council debate marks start of a new era in multilateral diplomacy. DiploFoundation blog. Elia Valori, G. (2023, July 8). Artificial Intelligence and the New World Order (1). Modern Diplomacy. Elia Valori, G. (2023, July 30). AI and the new world order: Economy and war (2). Modern Diplomacy. European Migration Network. (2022). The use of digitalisation and artificial intelligence in migration management: Joint EMN-OECD Inform. Farrow, R. (2023, August 21). Elon Musk´s Shadow Rule. How the U.S. government came to rely on the tech billionaire—and is now struggling to rein him in. The New Yorker. Feás, E. (2023, February 2). La guerra tecnológica EEUU-China y sus efectos sobre Europa. Real Instituto Elcano. Galeotti, M. (2023, January 7). The age of AI diplomacy. The Spectator. Giles, K. (2023, September 12). Tech giants hold huge sway in matters of war, life and death. That should concern us all. The Guardian. Government AI Readiness Index 2022. Heaven, W. D. (2023, December 19). These six questions will dictate the future of generative AI. MIT Technology Review. Henshall, W. (2023, Oct 23). What the U.N.’s AI Advising Group Will Do. Time. IBM Global AI Adoption Index 2022. Jacobs. S (2023, September 7). Time 100 Most Influential People on AI. Time. Jafarova, L. (2023, August 1). Artificial Intelligence and Digital Diplomacy. E-International Relations. Keohan, C. & Kralev, N. (2022, August 7). Want to Be a Diplomat? You Must Make it Past and A.I.’ Gateway’. Diplomatic Diary blog. Washington International Diplomatic Academy. Kurbalija, J. (2017, May 9). The impact of big data on geopolitics, negotiations, and diplomacy. DiploFoundation Blog. (Updated August 7, 2022). Kurbalija, J. (2023, May 1). Why might AI cause more ´lost in translation´ worldwide? DiploFoundation Blog. Kurbajila, J. (2023, June 12). The case for bottom-up AI. Al Jazeera. Kurbalija, J. (2023, August 1). What can Socrates teach us about AI and prompting? DiploFoundation Blog. Kurbalija, J. (2023, November 8). How can we deal with AI risks? DiploFoundation Blog. Kurbalija, J. (2023, December 28). AI and Digital in 2023: From winter of excitement to autumn of clarity. DiploFoundation Blog Laferrière, H. & McPherson, A. (2019, April 24). Augmented Decision-Making @ IRCC. Presentation to the Symposium on Algorithmic Government. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. Lazard Geopolitical Advisory. (2023, October). Geopolitics of Artificial Intelligence. Lederer, E. (2023, July 3). UN Council to hold first meeting on potential threats of artificial intelligence to global peace. AP News. Liu, S. & Patton, D. (2023, December 22). China bans export of rare earths processing tech over national security. Reuters. Manor, I. (2023, February 21). The AI Moves In: ChatGPT’s Impact on Digital Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, March 30). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, April 4). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy - Part 2. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, April 18). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy - Part 3. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, June 15). AI’s Impact on Public Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, June 27). The Many Races that will shape AI. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, July 4). Real Fakes and the Future of Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, August 15). Towards the Strategic Use of AI in Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy blog. Marcus, G. (2023, November 23). Critical national security questions should not be decided unilaterally by unelected tech leaders. Marcus at AI. Mahrenbach, E. (Ed.). (2023). Governing Artificial Intelligence. Global Policy Maslej, N., Fattorini, l., Brynjolfsson, E., Etchemendy, J., Ligett, K., Lyons, T., Manyika, J., Ngo, H., Niebles, J. C., Parli, V., Shoham, Y., Wald, R., Clark, J., & Perrault, R. (2023, April). The Artificial Intelligence Index 2023 Annual Report. Stanford University Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence. Matania, E. & Sommer, U. (2023, November 20). Tech titans, cyber commons and the war in Ukraine: An incipient shift in international relations. International Relations, 0 (0). https://doi.org/10.1177/00471178231211500 McCaffrey, C. R., Jones, O., Krumbmüller, F., & Bell, D. (2022; December). 2023 Geostrategic Outlook. Ernest and Young Parthenon. McCaffrey, C. R., Jones, O., & Krumbmüller, F. (2023, December). 2024 Geostrategic Outlook. Ernest and Young Parthenon. Morini Bianzino, N., Delarue. M.-L., Maher, S., Koene, A., Kummer, K., & Hassan-Szlamka, F. (2023, September 27). The Artificial Intelligence (AI) global regulatory landscape. Ernest and Young Global. O´Neil, L (2023, August 12). The Truth in Tech: These Women Tried to Warn Us about AI. Rolling Stone. Ortega, A. (2020, Diciembre 9). El pulso mundial por el dominio de los semiconductors. Real Instituto Elcano Pavel, B., Ke, I., Spirtas, M., Ryseff, J., Sabbag, L., Smith, G., Scholl, K., & Lumpkin, D. (202) AI and Geopolitics: How Might AI Affect the Rise and Fall of Nations? Rand Corporation. Peirano, M. (2023, October 17). The double life of artificial intelligence. On automata, symbolic models, neural networks and machine learning: a brief history of AI. CCCB Lab. Petrov, A., La Malfa, E., Torr, P. H.S., & Bibi, A. (2023, May 17). Language Model Tokenizers Introduce Unfairness Between Languages. ArXiv:2350.1542. Ponzio, R., Nudhara Yusuf, N., Mallinson, F. & Shahrukh, M. (2023). Future of International Cooperation Report 2023. The Stimson Center, Doha Forum, and Global Institute for Strategic Research. René, G., Sayegh, P., Petersen, C., Pletts, C., Richardson, D., Stockburger, P., & Tanenblatt, E. (2023, July). The Future of Global AI Governance. Verses. Sauer, P. (2023, Sept. 8). Elon Musk ´committed evil´ with Starlink order, says Ukrainian official. The Guardian. Schmidt, E. (2022). AI, Great Power Competition & National Security. Daedalus, 151(2), p.288-298. https://doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_01916. Scolari, C.A. (2023, February 7). Artificial Intelligence: Half Wanting, Half Fearing How will new AI-based tools change the way we think and perceive the world? CCCB Lab. Scott, B., Heumann, S., & Lorenz, P. (2018). Artificial Intelligence and Foreign Policy. Stiftung Neue Veranwortung. Shahbaz, A., Funk, A., Brody, J., Vesteinsson, K., Baker, G., Grothe, C., Barak, M., Masinsin, M., Modi, R., & Sutterlin, E. (eds.) (2023). Freedom on the Net 2023: The Repressive Power of Artificial Intelligence. Freedom House. Sheehan, M (2022, October 27). Biden’s Unprecedented Semiconductor Bet. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Stanford University. (n.d.). Global AI Vibrancy Tool. Who is leading the global AI race? Stanford University Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence. Stanzel, V. & Voelsen, D. (2022). Diplomacy and Artificial Intelligence Reflections on Practical Assistance for Diplomatic Negotiations. SWP Research Paper. Strachan, G. & Manor, I. (2023, July 14). ‘I can be a bastard too’- ChatGPT’s Real Contribution to Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Tacheva, J. and Ramasubramanian, S. (2023). AI Empire: Unraveling the interlocking systems of oppression in generative AI’s global order. Big Data and Society, 10(2), p. 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517231219241 Tarar, Z. (2023, February 23). Analysis - Could AI change the business of diplomacy? The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium. Tarar, Z. (2023, February 27). Analysis - Which AI tools should diplomats use today? The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium. Tarar, Z. (2023, August 28). Analysis - Harnessing AI for diplomacy: Five tools to make your work easier. The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium. Teleanu, S (2023, August 21). A journey of discovery: Using simulation and AI to teach and learn about digital governance. DiploFoundation Blog. US Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy. (2023, June 14). The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Public Diplomacy: ACPD Official Meeting Minutes, June 14, 2023. Williams, A., Micali, M. & Gebru, T. (2022, October 23). The Exploited Labor Behind Artificial Intelligence. NOEMA. Williams, R. & Otto, L. (2022). Artificial Intelligence as a Tool of Public Diplomacy: Communication between the United States and Iran. The Thinker 90(1) p. 28-40. Voo, J., Hemani, I. & Cassidy, D. (2022, September). National Cyber Power Index 2022. Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School. Courses Artificial Intelligence: Technology, Governance, and Policy Frameworks online course offered by DiploFoundation. Starts February 19, 2024. Artificial Intelligence for Beginners – A Curriculum offered by Microsoft. IA para todos (AI for everyone) offered by DeepLearning.AI at Coursera, thought by Andrew Ng. (some parts are offered in several languages). IBM: AI for Everyone: Master the Basics offered by edX. Machine learning and AI offered by Google (includes several courses). Information about using AI for teaching and learning Mollick, E. (2022, December 13). How to…use AI to teach some of the hardest skills. One Useful Thing blog. Mollick, E. (2023, January 24). The practical guide to using AI to do stuff. One Useful Thing blog. Mollick, E. (2023, March 17). Using AI to make teaching easier & more impactful. One Useful Thing blog. Mollick, E. (2023, July 15). How to Use AI to Do Stuff: An Opinionated Guide. One Useful Thing blog. Mollick, E. Video series on Practical AI for Teachers and Students. YouTube. UNESCO. (2023). Technology in Education: A Tool on Whose Terms? Global Education Monitoring Report. UNESCO DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are that of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company. “It is clear that AI will remain a permanent feature of international debates and will continue to shape societies and international relations. It is impossible to ignore the challenges – and opportunities – AI is bringing to the diplomatic realm” (DiploFoundation, 2019, p. 6). ![]() Artificial Intelligence (AI) impacts every aspect of humanity, including the relationship between countries and the current world order. In this blog post, I write about how machine learning (ML) is transforming the international system where diplomacy takes place. As seen in my previous posts, to better understand the impact of AI on diplomacy, DiploFoundation (2019) proposes to evaluate it from three different perspectives:
The most striking facts about how AI is influencing the diplomatic environment are two:
These two elements significantly affect the balance of power in military and economic terms (DiploFoundation, 2019, p. 6), which is transforming the current geopolitical landscape. Let´s start discussing the increasing international role of the private sector, especially the tech giants (Alibaba, Alphabet -Google-, Amazon, Apple, Baidu, Meta -Facebook-, Microsoft, and Tencent). “While AI will not reshape the global balance of power in [2024], it will become an increasingly important arena of geopolitical competition” (McCaffrey et al., 2023). Tech giants: Global powerhouses of cyberspace The power that technology companies have today in global politics is a tremendous difference from previous geopolitical changing technology. For example, governments developed nuclear weapons, even if there was some private company participation. In the case of AI, only a handful of enterprises have enough computing power, access to huge data sets, money, and technical know-how. No government entity can compete with them. According to some studies, most developments in AI have been done by private companies and not research institutes or universities (Pavel et al., 2023; Maslej et al., 2023). As we see in the discussion of the regulation of foundation models as part of the EU AI Act, these are the heart of all machine learning. Most AI applications today use some of the foundational models of OpenAI (ChatGPT and Bing.chat), Google (Bard now running on Gemini), Anthropic (Claude), and Inflection (Pi). There are some open-source foundational models, like Meta´s LLAMA 2 and Mistral´s Mixtral 8x7B, that, once they are released, anybody can use to create different applications. “AI is transforming almost every sector of national economies and is accelerating globalized competitions among digital platforms and services” (Schmidt, 2022, p. 288). As the Starlink saga in Ukraine has demonstrated, companies now have the power to influence the outcome of an international conflict (Sauer, 2023; Giles 2023; Marcus, 2023). “There is little precedent for a civilian’s becoming the arbiter of a war between nations in such a granular way, or for the degree of dependency that the U.S. now has on [Elon] Musk in a variety of fields, from the future of energy and transportation to the exploration of space” (Farrow, 2023). Bremmer and Kupchan (2022) point out that the globe is moving towards a technopolar world, in which “states are facing a new form of competition from technology companies. Indeed, the latter exercise a form of sovereignty over an entirely new dimension of geopolitics: digital space” (p. 5). The problem is that “big tech firms have neither the capacity nor the interest (not to mention the business model) to govern the places and tools they are creating” (Bremmer & Kupchan 2022, p. 6), thus creating a governance gap, that countries are trying to close with some regulations, such as the brand new EU AI Act, the U.S. Executive Order on AI, and China´s AI regulations. However, Marcus (2023) explains that we already live in a technopolar realm, highlighting three examples. The first is the debate on open-source AI systems, in which tech leaders are deciding on behalf of humanity with its inherent risks for all. Secondly, technology companies rather than the government determine collaboration on AI developments with other nations, which could have significant security consequences. Lastly, Elon Musk´s decision regarding the Starlink connection in Ukraine had a tangible impact on the conflict. The US–China AI competition Many authors have stated that the US and China are already fighting a Cold War, especially in the ML and semiconductors realms. However, there are still some instances of collaboration between the two AI titans. The bilateral AI race is critical as the two countries' actions already have a significant bearing on the rest of the world. Leadership in AI has become the frontier of US-China geostrategic competition” (Lazard Geopolitical Advisory, 2023, p. 7). In terms of hardware (including chips), it is clear that there is no cooperation, and each country has actually taken steps to reduce the opportunity for the other. The US first imposed export license requirements for certain companies and later expanded it to restrict exports of the machines that create the most sophisticated semiconductors used to power machine leaning systems (Sheehan, 2022). In October 2023, the US expanded those restrictions. On the other hand, China has been expanding the prohibition of exports of rare minerals and related technology needed to build semiconductors and other high-tech products such as batteries (Liu & Patton, 2023). Both countries are also working on the dual race of AI innovation and regulation domestically and internationally, which will have significant consequences for the rest of the world (McCaffrey et al., 2023). In addition, other countries have joined the AI race, including the EU, Japan, South Korea, and Saudi Arabia (Cesareo & White, 2023). Even countries like the UAE are marching ahead as the only country in the world that has established a Ministry of State for Artificial Intelligence. It is clear that the US-China AI competition has geopolitical consequences for the world and in the corridors of international organizations discussing AI regulations and ministries of foreign affairs. But, as one article mentions, the clear winner is AI so far (Cuéllar & Sheehan, 2023), as both are supporting innovation over regulation for fear of losing the AI race. Companies are also big winners on both sides as they are let loose to develop further machine learning systems and applications with little oversight and restrictions. The AI competition is closely related to the use of machine learning algorithms in conflicts. The evolution of lethal autonomous weapons systems is particularly worrisome, as discussed in the next section. Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS) An essential development regarding AI is Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS), which can change how countries wage wars. For more information on international efforts, check out this Digwatch page GGE -Group of Governmental Experts- on lethal autonomous weapons systems. At the core of the discussion is what happens when these systems turn against their creators or any human. It is very different to let an ML application recommend a song or a product to help you develop a strategy using big data analysis, and another totally different is to allow a computer system to kill a person by launching missiles from a UAV without human intervention. In recent days, there have been reports of Israel´s use of AI in Gaza (Davies, Mckernan, & Sabbagh, 2023). So, the use of machine learning in war is leaving the realm of fiction into reality, with all its consequences. As more countries rely upon such systems, war is changing substantially. A few days ago, on December 22, the UN General Assembly approved a resolution regarding LAWS, requesting the Secretary-General to prepare a report on this issue based on consultation with a wide array of stakeholders (Digwatch, 2023). It is a vital milestone as there is an urgent need to make sure the LAWS race to the bottom does not take the same pace as we are seeing it on the launching of Large Language Models. Preliminary conclusions The AI era is upon us, quickly transforming the international system and diplomacy. The exponential rate of ML developments is staggering and will be challenging to regulate in a highly contentious international environment. “The dual race to innovate and regulate [AI] will accelerate towards distinct geopolitical blocks” (McCaffrey et al., 2023, p. 7), centering around the US and China. However, the real powerholders of the digital realm are the tech giants, the only ones who can afford to develop the hugely costly ML foundational models. Artificial Intelligence “competition will continue to play out across the four bottlenecks [computing power, talent, data, and physical infrastructure] in the AI supply chain (Lazard Geopolitical Advisory, 2023, p. 19). This is in addition to achieving “self-reliance in critical technologies” (McCaffrey et al., 2022, p. 12). Regarding regulation, “Expect big headlines about how world capitals are bringing big tech to heel. But these are regulatory rear-guard actions, none of which will challenge big tech’s massive profits and influence anytime soon. Nor will they limit the biggest platforms’ ability to invest those profits in the digital sphere where they, not governments, remain the primary architects, actors, and enforcers” (Bremmer & Kupchan 2022, p. 6). Sadly, most countries worldwide will be lagging, with a few exceptions, subjugated by the AI Empire (Tacheva & Ramasubramanian, 2023). Besides implementing AI National Strategies and a Digital Foreign Policy, Global South governments could deploy technology diplomacy schemes to keep up with changes and establish relationships with tech giants. The development of AI has brought a new set of international actors that will dramatically change diplomacy. “As AI continues to advance, geopolitics may never be the same. Humans organized in nation-states will have to work with another set of actors—AI-enabled machines—of equivalent or greater intelligence and, potentially, highly disruptive capabilities. In the age of geotechnopolitics, human identity and human perceptions of our roles in the world will be distinctly different; monumental scientific discoveries will emerge in ways that humans may not be able to comprehend. Consequently, the AI development path that ultimately unfolds will matter enormously for the shape and contours of the future world (Pavel, et al., 2023). “Although technology has often influenced geopolitics, the prospect of AI means that the technology itself could become a geopolitical actor. AI could have motives and objectives that differ considerably from those of governments and private companies. Humans' inability to comprehend how AI "thinks" and our limited understanding of the second- and third-order effects of our commands or requests of AI are also very troubling. Humans have enough trouble interacting with one another. It remains to be seen how we will manage our relationships with one or more AIs” (Pavel et al., 2023). The big question regarding AI is whether it will benefit the majority of humanity or further concentrate power and enhance inequality. Do not forget to read some other posts about the subject:
Besides, I have curated a list of resources on AI and Diplomacy, which is a work in progress: References Allen, G. (2022, October 11). Choking off China´s Access to the Future of AI. Center for Strategic & International Studies. Bremmer, I. & Kupchan, C. (2022, January 3). Risk 2: Technopolar World. Top Risks 2022. p. 5-6. Euroasian Group. Cesareo, S. & White, J. (2023, June 23). The Global AI Index. Tortoise Media. Cuéllar, M.-F. & Sheehan, M. (2023, June 19). AI Is Winning the AI Race. Foreign Policy. Davies, H., Mckernan, B., and Sabbagh, D. (2023, December 1). ´The Gospel´: how Israel uses AI to select bombing targets in Gaza. The Guardian. Digwatch (n.d). GGE -Group of Governmental Experts- on lethal autonomous weapons systems. Digwatch. Digwatch (2023, December 25). UN General Assembly adopted resolution on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems or LAWS. Digwatch. DiploFoundation. (2019). Mapping the challenges and opportunities of artificial intelligence for the conduct of diplomacy. DiploFoundation and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland. Farrow, R. (2023, August 21). Elon Musk´s Shadow Rule. How the U.S. government came to rely on the tech billionaire—and is now struggling to rein him in. The New Yorker. Giles, K. (2023, September 12). Tech giants hold huge sway in matters of war, life and death. That should concern us all. The Guardian. Heaven, W. D. (2023, December 19). These six questions will dictate the future of generative AI. MIT Technology Review. Jafarova, L. (2023, August 1). Artificial Intelligence and Digital Diplomacy. E-International Relations. Kurbalija, J. (2017, May 9). The impact of big data on geopolitics, negotiations, and diplomacy. DiploFoundation Blog. (Updated August 7, 2022). Lazard Geopolitical Advisory. (2023, October). Geopolitics of Artificial Intelligence. Liu, S. & Patton, D. (2023, December 22). China bans export of rare earths processing tech over national security. Reuters. McCaffrey, C. R., Jones, O., Krumbmüller, F., & Bell, D. (2022, December). 2023 Geostrategic Outlook. Ernest and Young Parthenon. McCaffrey, C. R., Jones, O., & Krumbmüller, F. (2023, December). 2024 Geostrategic Outlook. Ernest and Young Parthenon. Marcus, G. (2023, November 23). Critical national security questions should not be decided unilaterally by unelected tech leaders. Marcus at AI. Maslej, N., Fattorini, l., Brynjolfsson, E., Etchemendy, J., Ligett, K., Lyons, T., Manyika, J., Ngo, H., Niebles, J. C., Parli, V., Shoham, Y., Wald, R., Clark, J., & Perrault, R. (2023, April). The Artificial Intelligence Index 2023 Annual Report. Stanford University Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence. Matania, E. & Sommer, U. (2023, November 20). Tech titans, cyber commons and the war in Ukraine: An incipient shift in international relations. International Relations, 0 (0). https://doi.org/10.1177/00471178231211500. Morini Bianzino, N., Delarue. M.-L., Maher, S., Koene, A., Kummer, K., & Hassan-Szlamka, F. (2023, September 27). The Artificial Intelligence (AI) global regulatory landscape. Ernest and Young Global. Pavel, B., Ke, I., Spirtas, M., Ryseff, J., Sabbag, L., Smith, G., Scholl, K., & Lumpkin, D. (2022) AI and Geopolitics: How Might AI Affect the Rise and Fall of Nations? Rand Corporation. Sauer, P. (2023, Sept. 8). Elon Musk ´committed evil´ with Starlink order, says Ukrainian official. The Guardian. Schmidt, E. (2022). AI, Great Power Competition & National Security. Daedalus, 151(2), p.288-298. https://doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_01916. Shahbaz, A., Funk, A., Brody, J., Vesteinsson, K., Baker, G., Grothe, C., Barak, M., Masinsin, M., Modi, R., & Sutterlin, E. (eds.). (2023). Freedom on the Net 2023: The Repressive Power of Artificial Intelligence. Freedom House. Sheehan, M (2022, October 27). Biden’s Unprecedented Semiconductor Bet. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Stanford University. (n.d.). Global AI Vibrancy Tool. Who is leading the global AI race? Stanford University Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence. Tacheva, J. and Ramasubramanian, S. (2023). AI Empire: Unraveling the interlocking systems of oppression in generative AI’s global order. Big Data and Society, 10(2), p. 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517231219241 Voo, J., Hemani, I. & Cassidy, D. (2022, September). National Cyber Power Index 2022. Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School. DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are those of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company. Diplomacy 4.0: The Rise of Artificial Intelligence as a Subject of Diplomatic Negotiations11/20/2023 As the Artificial Intelligence (AI) revolution continues, governments and international organizations are rapidly expanding diplomatic negotiations on the subject. In this blog post, I continue analyzing Artificial Intelligence in diplomacy, now focusing on AI as a subject of Diplomacy. As in my previous post, Diplomacy 4.0: How Artificial Intelligence in Changing Diplomacy? diplomacy-40-how-artificial-intelligence-is-changing-diplomacy.html, I will be using DiploFoundation´s perspective on how AI influences diplomacy (DiploFoundation, 2019, p. 14-15), which divides them into three: a) AI as a diplomatic tool; b) AI as a topic of diplomacy, and c) the consequences of AI on the international system. First, let's say that it is tough to follow up on the discussion on AI, as most international organizations and other multilateral mechanisms analyze the topic from different perspectives. However, the concerns about AI did not appear with the launching of ChatGPT a year ago. In many multilateral forums, AI has been discussed for quite some time. AI´s impact on all fronts makes it a theme for discussion in every single arena, from ethics and biases to human rights and democracy, including data protection and economic development. Kurbalija (2023, November 10) indicates that AI governance needs to be seen as different layers, starting from the hardware, including the chips used to power AI systems, followed by data, algorithms, and apps. This division is useful as it helps focus on specific aspects of each layer. Many organizations see AI as a great tool to help countries achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. In general, the development of AI has significant policy implications in four main areas: social and economic, safety and security, human rights, and ethical concerns (Digwatch, n.d., Artificial Intelligence). Some recent examples of AI as an issue for diplomacy are:
In the following section, there is a brief review of some of the most important activities related to AI as a topic of diplomacy. For an in-depth view, make sure you visit AI’s Digwatch webpage. UNESCO’s Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. In November 2021, all member states of UNESCO (193 countries) adopted the Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. It was a significant milestone regarding AI because rarely all 193 countries agreed on such a controversial topic, even with no binding guidelines. Besides, it is a very influential document as it is the only one of such documents or efforts. “What makes the Recommendation exceptionally applicable are its extensive Policy Action Areas, which allow policymakers to translate the core values and principles into action with respect to data governance, environment and ecosystems, gender, education and research, and health and social wellbeing, among many other spheres” (UNESCO, n.d.). UN Secretary-General efforts on AI. The UN and its organs have been working on several fronts to promote greater international collaboration in digital technology. Besides UNESCO, the Secretary-General has been promoting several actions in preparation for the Summit of the Future in September 2024. Here are some of the highlights of the different efforts:
The UN Secretary-General Envoy on Technology. After a year after establishing the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology, in June 2022, António Guterres named Amandeep Singh Gill the first UN Secretary-General Envoy on Technology. This is significant because the office “coordinates the implementation of the Secretary-General’s Roadmap on Digital Cooperation and will advance work towards the Global Digital Compact” (Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology, n.d.) The UN High-Level Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence In October 2023, “UN Secretary-General António Guterres unveiled a new advisory body dedicated to developing consensus around the risks posed by artificial intelligence and how international cooperation can help meet those challenges” (Henshall, 2023). The High-Level Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence has 38 members and met for the first time in November 2023. “The Body will offer diverse perspectives and options on how AI can be governed for the common good, aligning internationally interoperable governance with human rights and the Sustainable Development Goals.” (Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology, n.d.) The Council of Europe’s Convention on AI and Human Rights. This is an important negotiation, as it could be the first international treaty on the subject. The Council of Europe (CoE) established the Committee on Artificial Intelligence in 2021 with the goal of “elaborating a legal instrument on the development, design, and application of artificial intelligence (AI) systems based on the CoE’s standards on human rights, democracy and the rule of law, and conducive to innovation” (Digwatch, n.d., Convention on AI and human rights). European Union Artificial Intelligence Act. The European Commission proposed the Artificial Intelligence Act as part of the European Union's digital strategy, which already includes the General Data Protection Regulation (DGPR) (2018) and the Digital Market Act(2022). “Once approved, these [AI regulations] will be the world’s first rules on AI” (European Parliament, 2023a). The EU standpoint is that “AI systems that can be used in different applications are analysed and classified according to the risk they pose to users. The different risk levels will mean more or less regulation” (EuropeanParliament, 2023a). In June 2023, the “European Parliament adopted its negotiating position on the Artificial Intelligence (AI) Act … ahead of talks with EU member states on the final shape of the law” (European Parliament, 2023b). The negotiations between member states have advanced. However, recently, there were some disagreements that might delay the approval, which was expected as early as December. AI governance is at the core of diplomatic negotiations. Because AI´s impact on the world is transformational, all diplomatic endeavors center on its governance/regulations. “When debates on AI governance first emerged, one overarching question was whether AI-related challenges (in areas such as safety, privacy, and ethics) call for new legal and regulatory frameworks, or whether existing ones could be adapted to also cover AI. Applying and adapting existing regulation was seen by many as the most suitable approach. But, as AI innovation accelerated and applications became more and more pervasive, AI-specific governance and regulatory initiatives started emerging at national, regional, and international levels” (Digwatch, n.d., Artificial Intelligence). As mentioned above, the UN Secretary-General has been on the lead in the possible establishment of a new intergovernmental body that oversees AI. The brand-new Advisory Body has the purpose of discussing possible alternatives. At the national level, many countries already issued some guidelines or regulations about AI. To learn more about each country´s effort, check out the Government AI Readiness Index 2022 or the IBM Global AI Adoption Index 2022. One of the main recommendations of the Future of International Cooperation Report 2023 is the creation of an Artificial Intelligence international agency that “would serve to:
Several authors, including Manor (2023) and Kurbalija (2023, November 8), indicate that most of the attention on AI risks is focused on long-term issues such as existential threats to humanity. However, more immediate consequences of machine learning systems need to be confronted, such as biases, accessibility, and others. Governments, international organizations, companies, and civil society should comprehensively address short-, medium-, and long-term AI risks to tackle them better (Kurbalija, 2023, November 8). The calls to create an AI international body are growing. The most often cited examples are the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). However, after explaining the difficulties of setting up a new international organization, Roberts suggests that the “discussion should move away from what an idealised institution could look like, towards how existing initiatives can realistically be built upon to bring about positive change” (2023). Furthermore, he proposes a decentralized approach, similar to the Paris Accord and welcomes the creation of the UN Advisory Body on AI that “provides a valuable outlet for progressing discussions on strengthening international coordination; for instance, through mapping which institutions are currently fulfilling international AI governance functions and providing recommendations for how gaps can be filled and duplication lessened” (Roberts, 2023). The recently held AI Safety Summit resulted in “a joint commitment by twenty-eight governments and leading AI companies subjecting advanced AI models to a battery of safety tests before release and a major push to support regular, scientist-led assessments of AI capabilities and safety risks” (Cuellar, 2023). In the next eleven months, until the Summit of Future, there will be extensive discussion on multiple venues regarding AI governance. The fact that major countries agreed to the Bletchley Declaration gives some hope to find a way to reach an agreement on the topic. The obstacles are significant, and the differences are pronounced. The geopolitical competition between China and the US and the existing worldwide turmoil are challenges facing negotiators. The consequences of AI on the international system, especially on geopolitics, could be the defining element of reaching an agreement or not. The next blog post will discuss the third perspective on how to study AI´s influence on diplomacy. Note: Many more organizations and topics are being discussed on AI at the international level, such as Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS), so only a few topics were covered in this blog post. References Cuellar, M.F. (2023, November 9). The UK AI Safety Summit Opened a New Chapter in AI Diplomacy. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Digwatch. (n.d.). Artificial Intelligence. Digwatch. Digwatch. (n.d.). Convention on AI and human rights (CoE process). Digwatch. DiploFoundation. (2019). Mapping the challenges and opportunities of artificial intelligence for the conduct of diplomacy. DiploFoundation and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland. European Parliament. (2023a, June 14). EU AI Act: first regulation on artificial intelligence. EuropeanParliament News. European Parliament. (2023b, June 14). MEPs ready to negotiate first-ever rules for safe and transparent AI. European Parliament News. Henshall, W. (2023, Oct 23). What the U.N.’s AI Advising Group Will Do. Time. Kurbalija, J. (2023, November 8). How can we deal with AI risks? DiploFoundation Blog. Kurbalija, J. (2023, November 10). Layers of AI governance [Byte-sized Insights] #5. DiploFoundation. [Video]. Manor, I. (2023, June 6). Shock and Awe: How AI is Sidestepping Regulation. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology. (n.d.). Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology webpage. Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology. (n.d.). High-Level Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence. Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology webpage. Ponzio, R., Nudhara Yusuf, N., Mallinson, F. & Shahrukh, M. (2023). Future of International Cooperation Report 2023. The Stimson Center, Doha Forum, and Global Institute for Strategic Research. Roberts, H. (2023, August 11). Opinion – A New International AI Body Is No Panacea. E-International Relations. UNESCO. (n.d). Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. UNESCO webpage. Are you interested in AI and diplomacy? Check out my blog post about Resources on Diplomacy and Artificial Intelligence diplomacy-40-resources-on-diplomacy-and-artificial-intelligence.html DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are those of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company. ![]() Here is an updated version of Artificial Intelligence and Diplomacy resources, including AI tools, webpages, videos, studies, and articles. In the end, there is some information about using AI for teaching and learning. Please share new ones in the comment section! You can also read my blog posts about the subject here:
AI tools and application/experiments/usage Diplo AI Writer @ DiploFoundation is a DiploFoundation artificial intelligence writer who publishes blog posts about the subject, including the DiploFoundation AI Diary. HumAInism by DiploFoundation has some AI tools related to diplomacy and arts. Can ChatGPT Explain Geopolitics? is an exercise to compare two essays and test if you can identify the one written by AI. It is published by Foreign Policy magazine. Interactive webpage about the cost of AI in different languages (Tokenization fairness). Webpages of research centers and institutions Artificial Intelligence and Diplomacy by DiploFoundation. Artificial Intelligence by Digwatch (Geneva Internet Platform) AI Now Institute. Center for AI and Digital Policy Center for the Advancement of Trustworthy AI Deloitte AI Institute for Government Global Partnership for AI. MILA, Quebec Artificial Intelligence Institute. OECD AI Observatory. Partnership on AI Tech Policy Press. UN-related sites: Road Map for Digital Cooperation and its updated road map) Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology webpage. Global Digital Compact (May 2023, High-Level Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence Summit of the Future UNESCO´s Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. Videos Artificial Intelligence and Diplomacy Webinar. UNITAR and UOC. (2023, February 15). AI and Diplomacy: Challenges and opportunities. UNITAR (2023, May 10) Will AI take over diplomatic reporting? WebDebate #56. DiploFoundation (2023, February 7). What role can AI play in diplomatic negotiation? WebDebate #57. DiploFoundation (2023, March 7). How to Train Diplomats to Deal with AI and Data? WebDebate #58. DiploFoundation (2023, April 4). What Can We Learn About AI Ethics and Governance from Non-Western Thought? WebDebate #59. DiploFoundation (2023, May 2). AI for Peacemaking: new tools and opportunities for mediators. WebDebate #30. DiploFoundation (2019, June 19). AI on the international agenda - where do we go from here? WebDebate #26. DiploFoundation (2018, December 4). Studies and articles Bjola, C. (2019, October 19). Diplomacy in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. Real Institute Elcano. Bjola, C. (2020). Diplomacy in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. EDA Working Paper. Emirates Diplomatic Academy. Bjola, C. & Manor, I. (2023, April 25). ChatGPT: The end of diplomacy as we know it. Global Policy. Cocking, S. (2016, September 19). Using algorithms to achieve digital diplomacy. A conversation with Elad Ratson, Director of R&D at Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Irish Tech News. Deloitte AI Institute for Government & Google Cloud. (2022). Using Artificial Intelligence (AI) to Modernize American Statecraft. Dickow, M. and Jacob, D. (2018). The Global Debate on the Future of Artificial Intelligence. Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik [SWV] Comment No. 23, p. 7. Digwatch. (2019, February 5). Artificial intelligence and diplomacy: A new tool for diplomacy? EVENT REPORT. Digwatch. Geneva Internet Platform. Digwatch. (2023, July 17). UN Security Council convenes to discuss AI risks. Digwatch. Geneva Internet Platform. DiploFoundation. (2019). Mapping the challenges and opportunities of artificial intelligence for the conduct of diplomacy. DiploFoundation and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland. DiploFoundation. (2023, May 3). First full AI-reporting from the UN meeting. DiploFoundation blog. DiploFoundation. (2023, May 3). AI-based report of United Nations Security Council debate marks start of a new era in multilateral diplomacy. DiploFoundation blog. Elia Valori, G. (2023, July 8). Artificial Intelligence and the New World Order (1). Modern Diplomacy. Elia Valori, G. (2023, July 30). AI and the new world order: Economy and war (2). Modern Diplomacy. European Migration Network. (2022). The use of digitalisation and artificial intelligence in migration management: Joint EMN-OECD Inform. Galeotti, M. (2023, January 7). The age of AI diplomacy. The Spectator. Government AI Readiness Index 2022. Henshall, W. (2023, Oct 23). What the U.N.’s AI Advising Group Will Do. Time. IBM Global AI Adoption Index 2022. Jacobs. S (2023, September 7). Time 100 Most Influential People on AI. Time. Keohan, C. & Kralev, N. (2022, August 7). Want to Be a Diplomat? You Must Make it Past and A.I.’ Gateway’. Diplomatic Diary blog. Washington International Diplomatic Academy. Kurbalija, J. (2023, May 1). Why might AI cause more ´lost in translation´ worldwide? DiploFoundation Blog. Kurbajila, J. (2023, June 12). The case for bottom-up AI. Al Jazeera. Kurbalija, J. (2023, August 1). What can Socrates teach us about AI and prompting? DiploFoundation Blog. Kurbalija, J. (2023, November 8). How can we deal with AI risks? DiploFoundation Blog. Laferrière, H. & McPherson, A. (2019, April 24). Augmented Decision-Making @ IRCC. Presentation to the Symposium on Algorithmic Government. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. Lederer, E. (2023, July 3). UN Council to hold first meeting on potential threats of artificial intelligence to global peace. AP News. Manor, I. (2023, February 21). The AI Moves In: ChatGPT’s Impact on Digital Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, March 30). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, April 4). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy - Part 2. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, April 18). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy - Part 3. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, June 15). AI’s Impact on Public Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, June 27). The Many Races that will shape AI. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, July 4). Real Fakes and the Future of Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Manor, I. (2023, August 15). Towards the Strategic Use of AI in Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy blog. O´Neil, L (2023, August 12). The Truth in Tech: These Women Tried to Warn Us about AI. Rolling Stone. Petrov, A., La Malfa, E., Torr, P. H.S., & Bibi, A. (2023, May 17). Language Model Tokenizers Introduce Unfairness Between Languages. ArXiv:2350.1542. Ponzio, R., Nudhara Yusuf, N., Mallinson, F. & Shahrukh, M. (2023). Future of International Cooperation Report 2023. The Stimson Center, Doha Forum, and Global Institute for Strategic Research. Scott, B., Heumann, S., & Lorenz, P. (2018). Artificial Intelligence and Foreign Policy. Stiftung Neue Veranwortung. Stanzel, V. & Voelsen, D. (2022). Diplomacy and Artificial Intelligence Reflections on Practical Assistance for Diplomatic Negotiations. SWP Research Paper. Strachan, G. & Manor, I. (2023, July 14). ‘I can be a bastard too’- ChatGPT’s Real Contribution to Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. Tarar, Z. (2023, February 23). Analysis - Could AI change the business of diplomacy? The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium. Tarar, Z. (2023, February 27). Analysis - Which AI tools should diplomats use today? The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium. Tarar, Z. (2023, August 28). Analysis - Harnessing AI for diplomacy: Five tools to make your work easier. The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium. Teleanu, S (2023, August 21). A journey of discovery: Using simulation and AI to teach and learn about digital governance. DiploFoundation Blog. Williams, A., Micali, M. & Gebru, T. (2022, October 23). The Exploited Labor Behind Artificial Intelligence. NOEMA. Williams, R. & Otto, L. (2022). Artificial Intelligence as a Tool of Public Diplomacy: Communication between the United States and Iran. The Thinker 90(1) p. 28-40. Information about using AI for teaching and learning. Mollick, E. (2022, December 13). How to…use AI to teach some of the hardest skills. One Useful Thing blog. Mollick, E. (2023, January 24). The practical guide to using AI to do stuff. One Useful Thing blog. Mollick, E. (2023, March 17). Using AI to make teaching easier & more impactful. One Useful Thing blog. Mollick, E. (2023, July 15). How to Use AI to Do Stuff: An Opinionated Guide. One Useful Thing blog. Mollick, E. Video series on Practical AI for Teachers and Students. YouTube. DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are that of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company. ![]() In January 2023, I visited a country in the Middle East. It has been a while since I got so excited about a trip because it was my first time to that area of the planet. The region, particularly the Gulf States, has recently been in the world spotlight as the host of significant events such as the Dubai Expo 2020 and the Qatar Men´s World Cup 2022. Going to the region felt like my first trip to Asia-Pacific 31 years ago. Back then, most of Southeast Asia was developing rapidly and was attracting the world´s attention as the so-called Asian Tigers or NICs (New Industrialized Economies, referring to South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore). At that time, constructions were everywhere, and some innovative schemes were being developed in the region. APEC was the hottest informal multilateral organization. Besides, China was not yet the global power it is today, as it was still working on its economic reforms but was catching up fast. It is interesting that some regions get attention at a certain point. Japan was the talk of the town in the late 1980s, as they bought many U.S. companies. For Latin America, its moment happened back in the 1960s, when the region was growing fast. Mexico was called one of Latin America's miracles and even hosted the Olympic Games (1968) and the Men´s Soccer World Cup (1970) back-to-back. Sadly, today, Latin America is losing ground on the world stage. Humans like to build things, which is a perfect way to show off. Just look at Egypt’s pyramids or New York´s Empire State skyscraper so the world notices when countries erect attention-grabbing buildings. In the late 1990s, Malaysia finished the Petronas Twin Towers, the tallest building in the world back then, which was later overpassed by the Taipei 101 building. In recent years, the Gulf States have been catching up, developing massive infrastructure projects and impressive buildings such as the Burj Khalifa, the tallest building in the world today. Some of the region´s airlines are now trendsetters, just like Asian carriers two decades ago. You know when a region has become fashionable when you start to see locally produced shows on TV and streaming platforms. One example is Netflix´s Dubai Bling. I think this is a good thing because people worldwide, particularly from the Global South, can see a homegrown perspective rather than a Western one. This has been a problem for Mexico for the longest time, as we typically are known from what Hollywood movies show or U.S. media networks. Read more about Mexico´s image abroad in the blog post titled Broken funhouse mirror: Mexico´s image and reputation abroad. For many people around the globe, the Islamic world is mostly unknown, and the few things we know about it come from Western sources. For example, in history classes, we all learned how Europe contained the Muslim invasion during the Middle Ages and that later, they took over the whole region, especially after the disappearance of the Ottoman Empire. We also know that they had great mathematical thinkers, such as Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi, who were the basis of today´s computer systems. In my house, Las mil y una noches stories (Arabian Nights in English) were very popular when we were growing up. But that was it, besides the constant appearances of the region in the news, usually referring to violence, political and economic strive, and geopolitical competition. In Mexico, the Muslim population is minimal, so there are few opportunities to meet them and learn directly from them about their vibrant culture. In my case, it was not until I studied for a master's degree in Southeast Asia that I met very good friends from the Middle East. Later, I lived in Malaysia, where I always enjoyed the call to pray from my apartment´s nearby Mosque. While studying for my GMAP master´s degree, we analyzed the region thoroughly, as the U.S. was in the midst of the consequences of the 2003 Iraq invasion, and security issues were paramount. I enjoyed visiting a part of the Middle East, learning about the region’s history, meeting amazing people, and eating scrumptious dishes. I had the opportunity to visit an exemplary museum showcasing human art's history from a broad perspective. Most of its contents are not paintings, as in most Western museums, but plenty of figurines, masks, jewelry, and marble, rock, and bronze sculptures. It was eye-opening to see that the history of human civilizations does not start with the Greeks. The Middle East has some of the oldest art pieces in the world. Including works from China and India expose a much broader vision of the development of art worldwide. This is one of the goals of the Global South movement in International Relations. While there, Twitter, now X, suggested Bayt Al Fann´s account showcasing Islamic art and culture. Just look at it to experience some fantastic works of art that most do not know existed. What a different perspective from most of the daily news and images about the region we see in the media! Traveling allows you to experience places without any filters; thus, if you want to learn more about the world today, I encourage you to travel, even to your neighboring town. DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are that of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company. ![]() Today is an exceptional day for me. Twenty-five years ago, I joined the Foreign Service. It has been an extraordinary journey with ups and downs and amazing experiences, from meeting heads of state and representing Mexico in our Independence Day celebrations to organizing football tournaments for children and writing thousands of documents. One of the most significant rewards of my diplomatic career has been working with my colleagues, especially from the 15th generation of the diplomatic academy. Cheers to the members of my chat groups Vamos Mexico, Core Group, and Consejeros. Besides, I have been fortunate to have great bosses from whom I learned a lot throughout these years. I also had the unique opportunity to assist Mexicans abroad in distress in horrendous circumstances, including terrorist attacks, hurricanes and earthquakes, domestic violence, and more. Consular protection is where foreign policy meets people; I cherished my work in that department. While overseas, I had the opportunity to work for the Mexican community, which was a humbling experience. Mexicans abroad are the hardest-working people anywhere and some of the most patriotic people. Celebrating with them civic ceremonies and their hometowns' Saint's feast day are some of the highlights of my diplomatic career. Special thanks to the people of El Refugio, Jalisco; Sombrerete, Zacatecas; Axochiapan, Morelos; San Agustin Yaterani, Oaxaca; Las Margaritas, Chiapas; and many more towns across Mexico. I joined the foreign service during the tenure of the first female Minister of Foreign Affairs, and I am thrilled that we have our fourth female today. However, there is still much to do to fully attain gender equality and inclusion of other groups. The world has changed a lot since 1998. The digital revolution is pushing forward, regardless of its impact on society, government, and people. With the arrival of Generative AI, we are beginning another disruptive era. Diplomacy has also moved forward. Terms such as Tech and Digital diplomacy did not exist when I started my diplomatic career. Besides, while public diplomacy was disappearing in the US, it was exploding elsewhere, giving a new push for studying diplomacy. In recent years, there has been a boom in diplomatic studies, bringing perspectives from the Global South, thus moving slowly away from a Western-centric lens. Consular diplomacy as a field of study did not exist in 1998. However, the combination of lower transportation costs, the information and communications technology revolution, and the socialization and societization of diplomacy gave way to the rise of consular affairs as a priority to not only the ministries of foreign affairs but also politicians, the media, and the public. In my blog post, Consular Diplomacy bibliography LINK, you can find a list of books, essays, and documents on the subject. Nowadays, my focus is learning about the impact of technology, especially artificial intelligence. You can check out my series on Diplomacy 4.0, including the following posts:
I am looking forward to what my diplomatic career will take me next, but I am always ready to learn new things. DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are that of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company. |
Rodrigo Márquez LartigueDiplomat interested in the development of Consular and Public Diplomacies. Archives
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