Artificial Intelligence (AI) impacts every aspect of humanity, including the relationship between countries and the current world order. In this blog post, I write about how machine learning (ML) is transforming the international system where diplomacy takes place.
 
As seen in my previous posts, to better understand the impact of AI on diplomacy, DiploFoundation (2019) proposes to evaluate it from three different perspectives: 

• AI as a diplomatic tool that helps diplomats and MFAs perform their duties in areas such as consular affairs, public diplomacy, crisis management, and diplomatic negotiations.
• AI as a diplomatic topic, where the negotiations focus on how to regulate these applications best so they do not harm people and realize AI´s great potential. 
• The way AI affects “the environment in which diplomacy is practiced” (DiploFoundation, 2019, p. 6), e.g., the changes in the world’s geopolitics.

 
The most striking facts about how AI is influencing the diplomatic environment are two: 

1. The development of machine learning is being done mostly by private companies, not public entities, which has profound implications for governments and geopolitics. 
2. The huge concentration of this technology in only two countries, the United States and China, and their increasing rivalry. 

 
These two elements significantly affect the balance of power in military and economic terms (DiploFoundation, 2019, p. 6), which is transforming the current geopolitical landscape. Let´s start discussing the increasing international role of the private sector, especially the tech giants (Alibaba, Alphabet -Google-, Amazon, Apple, Baidu, Meta -Facebook-, Microsoft, and Tencent).

 The big question regarding AI is whether it will benefit the majority of humanity or further concentrate power and enhance inequality. 
 
Do not forget to read some other posts about the subject: 
 

• Diplomacy and Technology: The future is happening now (January 18, 2023) 
• Digital Diplomacy 4.0: The Future is Now (May 2, 2023) 
• Digital Diplomacy 4.0: Tech Diplomacy (May 8, 2023)
• Digital Diplomacy 4.0: The Basics of Artificial Intelligence (June 7, 2023)
• Digital Diplomacy 4.0: How Artificial Intelligence is Changing Diplomacy? (August 20, 2023)
• Diplomacy 4.0: The Rise of Artificial Intelligence as a Subject of Diplomatic Negotiations (November 20, 2023)

 
Besides, I have curated a list of resources on AI and Diplomacy, which is a work in progress: 

• Diplomacy 4.0: Resources on Diplomacy and Artificial Intelligence

 
References
 
Allen, G. (2022, October 11). Choking off China´s Access to the Future of AI. Center for Strategic & International Studies. 
Bremmer, I. & Kupchan, C. (2022, January 3). Risk 2: Technopolar World. Top Risks 2022. p. 5-6. Euroasian Group.
Cesareo, S. & White, J. (2023, June 23). The Global AI Index. Tortoise Media. 
Cuéllar, M.-F. & Sheehan, M. (2023, June 19). AI Is Winning the AI Race. Foreign Policy. 
Davies, H., Mckernan, B., and Sabbagh, D. (2023, December 1). ´The Gospel´: how Israel uses AI to select bombing targets in Gaza. The Guardian. 
Digwatch (n.d). GGE -Group of Governmental Experts- on lethal autonomous weapons systems. Digwatch.
Digwatch (2023, December 25). UN General Assembly adopted resolution on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems or LAWS. Digwatch.
DiploFoundation. (2019). Mapping the challenges and opportunities of artificial intelligence for the conduct of diplomacy. DiploFoundation and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland.
Farrow, R. (2023, August 21). Elon Musk´s Shadow Rule. How the U.S. government came to rely on the tech billionaire—and is now struggling to rein him in. The New Yorker. 
Giles, K. (2023, September 12). Tech giants hold huge sway in matters of war, life and death. That should concern us all. The Guardian. 
Heaven, W. D. (2023, December 19). These six questions will dictate the future of generative AI. MIT Technology Review.
Jafarova, L. (2023, August 1). Artificial Intelligence and Digital Diplomacy. E-International Relations.
Kurbalija, J. (2017, May 9). The impact of big data on geopolitics, negotiations, and diplomacy. DiploFoundation Blog. (Updated August 7, 2022).
Lazard Geopolitical Advisory. (2023, October). Geopolitics of Artificial Intelligence. 
Liu, S. & Patton, D. (2023, December 22). China bans export of rare earths processing tech over national security. Reuters.
McCaffrey, C. R., Jones, O., Krumbmüller, F., & Bell, D. (2022, December). 2023 Geostrategic Outlook. Ernest and Young Parthenon.
McCaffrey, C. R., Jones, O., & Krumbmüller, F. (2023, December). 2024 Geostrategic Outlook. Ernest and Young Parthenon.
Marcus, G. (2023, November 23). Critical national security questions should not be decided unilaterally by unelected tech leaders. Marcus at AI. 
Maslej, N., Fattorini, l., Brynjolfsson, E., Etchemendy, J., Ligett, K., Lyons, T., Manyika, J., Ngo, H., Niebles, J. C., Parli, V., Shoham, Y., Wald, R., Clark, J., & Perrault, R. (2023, April). The Artificial Intelligence Index 2023 Annual Report. Stanford University Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence.
Matania, E. & Sommer, U. (2023, November 20). Tech titans, cyber commons and the war in Ukraine: An incipient shift in international relations. International Relations, 0 (0). https://doi.org/10.1177/00471178231211500.
Morini Bianzino, N., Delarue. M.-L., Maher, S., Koene, A., Kummer, K., & Hassan-Szlamka, F. (2023, September 27). The Artificial Intelligence (AI) global regulatory landscape. Ernest and Young Global.
Pavel, B., Ke, I., Spirtas, M., Ryseff, J., Sabbag, L., Smith, G., Scholl, K., & Lumpkin, D. (2022) AI and Geopolitics: How Might AI Affect the Rise and Fall of Nations? Rand Corporation. 
Sauer, P. (2023, Sept. 8). Elon Musk ´committed evil´ with Starlink order, says Ukrainian official. The Guardian.
Schmidt, E. (2022). AI, Great Power Competition & National Security. Daedalus, 151(2), p.288-298. https://doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_01916.
Shahbaz, A., Funk, A., Brody, J., Vesteinsson, K., Baker, G., Grothe, C., Barak, M., Masinsin, M., Modi, R., & Sutterlin, E. (eds.). (2023). Freedom on the Net 2023: The Repressive Power of Artificial Intelligence. Freedom House.
Sheehan, M (2022, October 27). Biden’s Unprecedented Semiconductor Bet. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 
Stanford University. (n.d.). Global AI Vibrancy Tool. Who is leading the global AI race? Stanford University Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence. 
Tacheva, J. and Ramasubramanian, S. (2023). AI Empire: Unraveling the interlocking systems of oppression in generative AI’s global order. Big Data and Society, 10(2), p. 1-13.  https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517231219241
Voo, J., Hemani, I. & Cassidy, D. (2022, September). National Cyber Power Index 2022. Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School. 
 
 
DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are those of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company.

As the Artificial Intelligence (AI) revolution continues, governments and international organizations are rapidly expanding diplomatic negotiations on the subject. In this blog post, I continue analyzing Artificial Intelligence in diplomacy, now focusing on AI as a subject of Diplomacy. 
 
As in my previous post, Diplomacy 4.0: How Artificial Intelligence in Changing Diplomacy? diplomacy-40-how-artificial-intelligence-is-changing-diplomacy.html, I will be using DiploFoundation´s perspective on how AI influences diplomacy (DiploFoundation, 2019, p. 14-15), which divides them into three: a) AI as a diplomatic tool; b) AI as a topic of diplomacy, and c) the consequences of AI on the international system.
 
First, let's say that it is tough to follow up on the discussion on AI, as most international organizations and other multilateral mechanisms analyze the topic from different perspectives. However, the concerns about AI did not appear with the launching of ChatGPT a year ago. In many multilateral forums, AI has been discussed for quite some time.
 
AI´s impact on all fronts makes it a theme for discussion in every single arena, from ethics and biases to human rights and democracy, including data protection and economic development. Kurbalija (2023, November 10) indicates that AI governance needs to be seen as different layers, starting from the hardware, including the chips used to power AI systems, followed by data, algorithms, and apps. This division is useful as it helps focus on specific aspects of each layer.
 
Many organizations see AI as a great tool to help countries achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. In general, the development of AI has significant policy implications in four main areas: social and economic, safety and security, human rights, and ethical concerns (Digwatch, n.d., Artificial Intelligence).
 
Some recent examples of AI as an issue for diplomacy are:

• AI Safety Summit, hosted by the UK (November 2023).  
• The G7 Hiroshima AI Process (October 2023). 
• The UN Security Council meeting on AI (July 18, 2023). 
• AI for Good Summit, organized by the International Telecommunications Union (July 2023).
• The G20 Ministerial Statement on Trade and Digital Economy (June 2019).

 
In the following section, there is a brief review of some of the most important activities related to AI as a topic of diplomacy. For an in-depth view, make sure you visit AI’s Digwatch webpage.
 
UNESCO’s Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. 
 
In November 2021, all member states of UNESCO (193 countries) adopted the Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. It was a significant milestone regarding AI because rarely all 193 countries agreed on such a controversial topic, even with no binding guidelines. 
 
Besides, it is a very influential document as it is the only one of such documents or efforts. “What makes the Recommendation exceptionally applicable are its extensive Policy Action Areas, which allow policymakers to translate the core values and principles into action with respect to data governance, environment and ecosystems, gender, education and research, and health and social wellbeing, among many other spheres” (UNESCO, n.d.).
 
UN Secretary-General efforts on AI.
 
The UN and its organs have been working on several fronts to promote greater international collaboration in digital technology. Besides UNESCO, the Secretary-General has been promoting several actions in preparation for the Summit of the Future in September 2024.
 
Here are some of the highlights of the different efforts:

• Road Map for Digital Cooperation (June 2020).
• Creation of the Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology UN Envoy on Technology(June 2021).
• Proposal of negotiating the Global Digital Compact (September 2021).
• Establishment of the UN High-Level Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence (October 2023).
• Celebration of the Summit of the Future (September 2024).

 
The UN Secretary-General Envoy on Technology.
 
After a year after establishing the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology, in June 2022, António Guterres named Amandeep Singh Gill the first UN Secretary-General Envoy on Technology. This is significant because the office “coordinates the implementation of the Secretary-General’s Roadmap on Digital Cooperation and will advance work towards the Global Digital Compact” (Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology, n.d.)
 
The UN High-Level Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence
 
In October 2023, “UN Secretary-General António Guterres unveiled a new advisory body dedicated to developing consensus around the risks posed by artificial intelligence and how international cooperation can help meet those challenges” (Henshall, 2023).
 
The High-Level Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence has 38 members and met for the first time in November 2023. “The Body will offer diverse perspectives and options on how AI can be governed for the common good, aligning internationally interoperable governance with human rights and the Sustainable Development Goals.” (Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology, n.d.)
 
The Council of Europe’s Convention on AI and Human Rights. 
 
This is an important negotiation, as it could be the first international treaty on the subject. The Council of Europe (CoE) established the Committee on Artificial Intelligence in 2021 with the goal of “elaborating a legal instrument on the development, design, and application of artificial intelligence (AI) systems based on the CoE’s standards on human rights, democracy and the rule of law, and conducive to innovation” (Digwatch, n.d., Convention on AI and human rights).
 
European Union Artificial Intelligence Act.
 
The European Commission proposed the Artificial Intelligence Act as part of the European Union's digital strategy, which already includes the General Data Protection Regulation (DGPR) (2018) and the Digital Market Act(2022). “Once approved, these [AI regulations] will be the world’s first rules on AI” (European Parliament, 2023a).
 
The EU standpoint is that “AI systems that can be used in different applications are analysed and classified according to the risk they pose to users. The different risk levels will mean more or less regulation” (EuropeanParliament, 2023a).
 
In June 2023, the “European Parliament adopted its negotiating position on the Artificial Intelligence (AI) Act … ahead of talks with EU member states on the final shape of the law” (European Parliament, 2023b). 
 
The negotiations between member states have advanced. However, recently, there were some disagreements that might delay the approval, which was expected as early as December.
 
AI governance is at the core of diplomatic negotiations. 
 
Because AI´s impact on the world is transformational, all diplomatic endeavors center on its governance/regulations. “When debates on AI governance first emerged, one overarching question was whether AI-related challenges (in areas such as safety, privacy, and ethics) call for new legal and regulatory frameworks, or whether existing ones could be adapted to also cover AI. Applying and adapting existing regulation was seen by many as the most suitable approach. But, as AI innovation accelerated and applications became more and more pervasive, AI-specific governance and regulatory initiatives started emerging at national, regional, and international levels” (Digwatch, n.d., Artificial Intelligence).
 
As mentioned above, the UN Secretary-General has been on the lead in the possible establishment of a new intergovernmental body that oversees AI. The brand-new Advisory Body has the purpose of discussing possible alternatives. 
 
At the national level, many countries already issued some guidelines or regulations about AI. To learn more about each country´s effort, check out the Government AI Readiness Index 2022 or the IBM Global AI Adoption Index 2022.
 
One of the main recommendations of the Future of International Cooperation Report 2023 is the creation of an Artificial Intelligence international agency that “would serve to: 

1. Improve visibility, advocacy, and resource mobilization for global AI regulatory efforts; 
2. provide thought leadership on General Assembly and Security Council AI and cyber technology-related initiatives and agreements; 
3. monitor, evaluate, and report on AI industry safeguards in compliance with an agreed international regulatory framework; 
4. enhance coordination across Member States and regional bodies to leverage AI’s positive development applications; and 
5. coordinate transnationally across initiatives and frameworks on AI governance to support knowledge-sharing of best practices and lessons learnt. 

The Agency should be supported by an expert Intergovernmental Cyber and AI Panel, modeled on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change” (Ponzio, R. et al., 2023, p. 9).
 
Several authors, including Manor (2023) and Kurbalija (2023, November 8), indicate that most of the attention on AI risks is focused on long-term issues such as existential threats to humanity. However, more immediate consequences of machine learning systems need to be confronted, such as biases, accessibility, and others. Governments, international organizations, companies, and civil society should comprehensively address short-, medium-, and long-term AI risks to tackle them better (Kurbalija, 2023, November 8).
 
The calls to create an AI international body are growing. The most often cited examples are the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). However, after explaining the difficulties of setting up a new international organization, Roberts suggests that the “discussion should move away from what an idealised institution could look like, towards how existing initiatives can realistically be built upon to bring about positive change” (2023). 
 
Furthermore, he proposes a decentralized approach, similar to the Paris Accord and welcomes the creation of the UN Advisory Body on AI that “provides a valuable outlet for progressing discussions on strengthening international coordination; for instance, through mapping which institutions are currently fulfilling international AI governance functions and providing recommendations for how gaps can be filled and duplication lessened” (Roberts, 2023).
 
The recently held AI Safety Summit resulted in “a joint commitment by twenty-eight governments and leading AI companies subjecting advanced AI models to a battery of safety tests before release and a major push to support regular, scientist-led assessments of AI capabilities and safety risks” (Cuellar, 2023).
 
In the next eleven months, until the Summit of Future, there will be extensive discussion on multiple venues regarding AI governance. The fact that major countries agreed to the Bletchley Declaration gives some hope to find a way to reach an agreement on the topic. The obstacles are significant, and the differences are pronounced. The geopolitical competition between China and the US and the existing worldwide turmoil are challenges facing negotiators. 
 
The consequences of AI on the international system, especially on geopolitics, could be the defining element of reaching an agreement or not. The next blog post will discuss the third perspective on how to study AI´s influence on diplomacy. 
 
Note: Many more organizations and topics are being discussed on AI at the international level, such as Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS), so only a few topics were covered in this blog post. 
 
References
 
Cuellar, M.F. (2023, November 9). The UK AI Safety Summit Opened a New Chapter in AI Diplomacy. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 
Digwatch. (n.d.). Artificial Intelligence. Digwatch.
Digwatch. (n.d.). Convention on AI and human rights (CoE process). Digwatch.
DiploFoundation. (2019). Mapping the challenges and opportunities of artificial intelligence for the conduct of diplomacy. DiploFoundation and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland.
European Parliament. (2023a, June 14). EU AI Act: first regulation on artificial intelligence. EuropeanParliament News.
European Parliament. (2023b, June 14). MEPs ready to negotiate first-ever rules for safe and transparent AI. European Parliament News.
Henshall, W. (2023, Oct 23). What the U.N.’s AI Advising Group Will Do. Time. 
Kurbalija, J. (2023, November 8). How can we deal with AI risks? DiploFoundation Blog. 
Kurbalija, J. (2023, November 10). Layers of AI governance [Byte-sized Insights] #5. DiploFoundation. [Video].
Manor, I. (2023, June 6). Shock and Awe: How AI is Sidestepping Regulation. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog.
Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology. (n.d.). Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology webpage.
Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology. (n.d.). High-Level Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence. Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Technology webpage.
Ponzio, R., Nudhara Yusuf, N., Mallinson, F. & Shahrukh, M. (2023). Future of International Cooperation Report 2023. The Stimson Center, Doha Forum, and Global Institute for Strategic Research.
Roberts, H. (2023, August 11). Opinion – A New International AI Body Is No Panacea. E-International Relations.
UNESCO. (n.d). Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. UNESCO webpage. 
 
 
Are you interested in AI and diplomacy? Check out my blog post about Resources on Diplomacy and Artificial Intelligence diplomacy-40-resources-on-diplomacy-and-artificial-intelligence.html
 
DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are those of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company.
 
 

 
The avalanche of new Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems is non-stop. It is impossible to keep up with the AI race that began in earnest with the launch of ChatGPT in November 2022 (Manor 2023f). Today, at least four Large Language Models (LLMs) compete for the world’s attention: ChatGPT (including Bing.chat), Bard, Llama 2, and Claude. Not all are available in every country, and some are free. Many questions about Machine Learning (ML) have been raised, from the data sets used for their training, including privacy and intellectual property rights, to their biases and hallucinations. AI could prove to be a hugely disrupting force.
 
Considering the fast pace of development, it is hard to grasp AI's impact on diplomacy. However, there is a growing number of studies about how these new systems are changing diplomacy.
 
In this blog post, I continue with the Diplomacy 4.0 series. First, I explain why generative AI differs from previous AI systems, followed by an analysis of ML as a tool for diplomacy. In another post, I will write about AI as a topic of diplomacy and the geopolitical impact that it is having. To learn about AI basics, check out my blog post, Diplomacy 4.0: The basics of Artificial Intelligence. 
 
1. Why all the hype about AI if it has been with us for many years? 
 
First, it is crucial to understand why the arrival of ChatGPT generated such an uproar. Manor (2023a; 2023b, 2023e) indicates that the significant factor of ChatGPT, a generative AI system, is that every single person with a computer and internet connection could use it. People do not need coding abilities or advanced mathematical training, so these systems “enable everyday users to harness the awesome power of AI” (Manor, 2023e). I am an example of this revolution, as I have used it to create a short video, suggest titles for my blog posts, such as this one, summarize articles, and experiment with a Chatbot. 
 
The new LLMs´ capability to converse with us in a human-like manner rather than with computational codes is a game-changing experience. Furthermore, the ability to continue learning and develop new skills has been breathtaking, making some AI experts nervous and leading to a request to pause its development.
 
Besides, technological developments, from the written word to telegraphy and the internet, have always changed diplomatic practices, so the AI revolution is not different from the previous advances. However, up until now, humans were the only actors. So, with AI, a new era of interactions between humans and machines is emerging. For a historical review of the relationship between technology and diplomacy, visit the excellent site created by DiploFoundation.
 
So, how is AI changing diplomacy? One way to study the effects of ML in diplomacy is by looking at the relationship between the two.
 
2. Three perspectives on the relationship between diplomacy and artificial intelligence
 
A few years ago, the DiploFoundation proposed a framework for analyzing the relationship between diplomacy and AI programs (2019, p. 6). The study states that we need to see it from three different perspectives:

1. AI as a tool for diplomacy, which entails all the new ways MFAs and diplomats can use it to perform their activities. 
2. AI as a topic of diplomacy centered on the tasks that diplomats have to implement to regulate and organize ML at the local, bilateral, and multilateral arenas. 
3. The consequences of AI on the international system, particularly geopolitics (DiploFoundation, 2019, p. 14-16).

 
As mentioned, I focus on the first issue in this post. I will write about the other two in a separate post.
 
3. AI as a tool for diplomacy
 
In recent years, a small but steady flow of studies have analyzed how AI can support the core diplomatic functions of communication, representation, and negotiation (see list of resources at the bottom of the post). 
 
The ability of ML to process enormous quantities of data in a few seconds and the multiple ways of analyzing data is crucial for diplomacy. “AI can be a useful tool in facilitating tasks that require diplomats to work with, digest, or research vast amounts of text” (DiploFoundation, 2019, p. 26). AI could “mine internal knowledge to provide insights” (Tarar 2023a) that diplomats might miss on different subjects, possibly expanding the options available to move forward. Having these types of resources would enhance the diplomat´s analysis and decision-making (Galeotti, 2023).
 
Among the different options, Deloitte AI Institute for Government & Google Cloud have identified four different uses for AI: automate, predict, detect, and simulate (2022, p. 5-6) across three core functions: diplomacy, foreign assistance, and consular affairs, plus an additional one centered on mission-enabling functions (Ibid, p. 7-10).
 
Even though there have been some issues with AI for hiring people, such as the one in Amazon, the U.S. Department of State is applying AI systems in the evaluation process of future diplomats. ML reviews thousands of essays submitted in the recruitment process (Keohan & Kralev, 2022). 
 
Other possible uses of ML systems for diplomacy are sentiment, predictive, and descriptive analysis (Bjola, 2019, p. 5). Manor and Tarar (2023a; 2023b) suggest that AI could save diplomats time by creating official documents and statements.
 
AI could bridge the gap between people speaking different languages, as it can be used for interpreting in real time. It could also help translate newspapers and social media postings (Tarar, 2023b). However, relying solely upon these systems could be problematic by ignoring “cultural differences and nuances in intercultural communication” (Kurbalija, 2023). 
 
Many new ML applications are available now to help transcribe videos and audio in a fraction of the time humans; it could help in the tedious task of creating meetings´ minutes and do-outs (Tarar, 2023b). For example, the DiploFoundation used its DiploGPT system to provide a “just-in-time reporting from the six hour” UN Security Council debate titled Futureproofing trust for sustaining peace that took place on May 3, 2023 (DiploFoundation, 2023a; DiploFoundation, 2023b). 
 
Another use of AI is to train diplomats using simulations. Recently, Teleanu (2023) shared her experience using a Chabot in a simulation of a multilateral negotiation in a digital governance course. LLMs could also be helpful to do research (Tarar, 2023b) and teach and learn new abilities and skills if used correctly (Mollick, 2022; Mollick, 2023a, 2023b, 2023c).
 
Some studies analyze or propose specific areas in which AI can enhance the work of diplomats and ministries of foreign affairs (MFAs), such as consular services, negotiations, crisis management, and public diplomacy. So, let’s review each of these four topics. 
 
3.1 Consular Services
 
Many studies have identified consular affairs as an area that could benefit from AI. (Bjola, 2019; Bjola, 2020; Deloitte, 2022; Manor, 2023a; Manor, 2023f, Tarar 2023a). As an area of routine operations based on processes, some consular services could automatize with AI (Bjola, 2019, p. 4; Deloitte, 2022, p. 8-9).
 
Today, some countries are already implementing ML programs in consular services. Canada (Laferrière & McPherson, 2019), Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Hungary, and Finland are already using AI in some visa and migration procedures, including identity fraud detection, cases management, and dealing with customers (European Migration Network, 2022, p. 9-12). Besides, eleven European countries are working on several AI projects. To see all of them, see European Migration Network, 2022, p. 11-12.
 
During the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, several MFAs utilized chatbots to provide information to their citizens stranded abroad due to the closing of borders (Birka, Kļaviņš, & Kits, 2022).
 
3.2 Crises management and prevention
 
MFAs, including the UK and Germany, are already deploying “AI tools to monitor open data for early crisis detection – with the aim of expanding this towards gaining insights for crisis prevention” (DiploFoundation, 2019, p. 26). ML systems “can make sense of the nature and gravity of the events in real-time, streamline the decision-making process, manage the public’s expectations, and facilitate crisis termination” (Bjola, 2019, p. 5).
 
3.3 Public Diplomacy
 
Public diplomacy is another area in which ML systems could make significant contributions. For example, “AI could assist these [public diplomacy] efforts by providing reliable diagnostics of the scope conditions for impact via network, cluster and semantic analyses” (Bjola, 2019, p. 6; Bjola, 2020, p. 29). Besides, Williams & Otto (2022) analyze the different issues related to AI that affect the public diplomacy of Iran and the United States, providing some examples.
 
Stanzel and Voelsen (2022) have proposed using ML to perform sentiment analysis of public media regarding a trade negotiation (p. 27), which can also be used for public diplomacy. Also, ML could improve the performance of a campaign by adopting a more attractive narrative (Manor, 2023e).
 
3.4 Negotiations 
 
Negotiation, an essential aspect of diplomacy, can also be enhanced using AI systems (Manor, 2023a). Programs like Cognitive Trade Advisor, which “answers questions on rules of origin across a vast number of trade agreements,” can assist negotiations, especially by small countries (DiploFoundation, 2019, p. 26).
 
In exciting research about the usage of AI in diplomatic negotiations based on two case studies, Stanzel and Voelsen (2022) conclude that AI “has the potential to become an important, possibly indispensable tool for preparing and conducting diplomatic negotiations…and those who best succeed in embracing the possibilities of machine learning will have an advantage in negotiations” (p. 30). Furthermore, they made some recommendations, including to experiment and appraise these systems, create a data strategy, “establish and institutionalize appropriate networks” (Ibid, p. 31) “and draw up normative guidelines for the use of AI in the context of diplomacy” (Ibid, p. 6).
 
4. Challenges of AI as a tool for diplomacy 
 
As seen here, MFAs and diplomats can benefit from using AI systems. However, to take full advantage, they need to overcome some challenges and mitigate the inherent risks. “ChatGPT, the next generation of conversational AI, could have a profound impact on diplomacy, disrupting how diplomats communicate, negotiate, and manage crises” (Bjola & Manor, 2023).
 
One of the most significant tests is the potential for AI to generate disinformation and deep fakes on an enormous scale, which could be impossible to identify and could dampen the ability of diplomats to respond (Manor, 2023d; 2023g). According to Manor (2023g), this could lead to multiple realities. “Gaps between diplomats’ statements and ChatGPT answers may thus decrease public confidence in diplomats and diplomatic institutions” (Manor 2023e). Two examples were Pope Francis wearing a puffer white jacket that became viral or Donald Trump being arrested by the police.
 
Generative AI already poses a challenge to managing countries' image and reputation, as shown by Manor (2023c) in the cases of Poland, Palestine, and China, where the image these governments try to portray differs from the perspective provided by chatbots. Besides, “AI-generated content could negatively impact a nation's reputation, the credibility of its leaders and undo previous diplomatic efforts” (Bjola & Manor, 2023). All these are particularly worrisome, considering that the media has pushed the narrative of AI systems as trustworthy and credible (Manor, 2023c; 2023a; 2023e). 
 
Besides, there is growing evidence that most ML programs have some biases in favor of Western perspectives vs. the rest of the world. (Manor 2023c; 2023e). Furthermore, the foundational models used for most chatbots have centered on English language sources, affecting the views and perspectives of other languages, including their computational costs.
 
Manor (2023a) details that one of the main challenges of AI systems such as ChatGPT is continuing to expand the gap between reality and the views generated by digital technologies that support the growing attraction of populist leaders. These leaders can undermine governments’ institutions, including diplomats, and affect their efforts to find global solutions to global problems. This view contradicts Simon Anholt´s proposal in the Good Country Index, in which governments should have a dual mandate: support their citizens while backing the world at large. 
 
Another challenge is the effect of LLMs on the agency of diplomats. Bjola and Manor (2023) explain that “while automation may be cost-effective, it may not necessarily translate into effectiveness in diplomacy, which relies heavily on informal conversations and personal relationships between diplomats.” 
 
AI training for diplomats and other actors involved in foreign policy is essential to fully take advantage of ML benefits. Experimenting with LLMs will help diplomats identify these technologies' potential pitfalls (Manor, 2023g). However, “placing more diplomats in front of computer screens and training them to converse with AIs rather than humans may result in diplomats who are ill-equipped to manage diplomatic relations with other states” (Bjola & Manor, 2023).

It is also crucial that diplomats understand that anything they feed into the AI systems could be used for training; therefore, it is imperative to avoid providing sensitive and confidential information (Tarar, 2023b). I wonder if it could be possible that by good prompting and some hacks, people can pinpoint some data provided to the LLM with confidential information. 
 
One way to meet these challenges is to regulate AI (Manor 2023a), an issue that will be covered in the next post. 
 
5. Preliminary conclusions
 
Generative AI has arrived, and it is not going anywhere. The genie is out of the bottle. Therefore, governments, diplomats, and people cannot relax and wait and see what happens next. They must develop a comprehensive approach that includes training for everybody, some sort of regulations, and trends analysis. 
 
A meaningful action that MFAs can implement now is engaging in technology diplomacy or Techplomacy, which entails dialogue and building relationships with the tech ecosystem, including direct contact with the Tech giants, most of which are at the forefront of the AI race. Countries like Australia, France, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom have gone further and have designed digital foreign policy strategies, which I believe is a must in today´s world, more and more embedded in the cyber realm. See also Tech diplomacy practice in the San Francisco Bay Area.
 
In the next blog post, I will focus on AI as a topic for Diplomacy and the impact that LLMs are having on the geopolitics of today´s global disorder, as ML is becoming a source of power. 
 
You can also read my blog posts about the subject here:

• Diplomacy and Technology: The future is happening now (January 18, 2023) diplomacy-and-technology-the-future-is-happening-now.html
• Digital Diplomacy 4.0: The Future is Now (May 2, 2023) digital-diplomacy-40-the-future-is-now.html
• Digital Diplomacy 4.0: Tech Diplomacy (May 8, 2023) digital-diplomacy-40-tech-diplomacy.html
• Digital Diplomacy 4.0: The Basics of Artificial Intelligence (June 7, 2023) digital-diplomacy-40-the-basics-of-artificial-intelligence.html
• Diplomacy 4.0: Resources on Diplomacy and Artificial Intelligence (November 11, 2023) diplomacy-40-resources-on-diplomacy-and-artificial-intelligence.html

 
 
Resources on AI and Diplomacy
 
Here is a list of resources on AI and diplomacy. Please share new ones!
 
AI tools and application/experiments/usage 
 
Diplo AI Writer @ DiploFoundation is a DiploFoundation artificial intelligence writer who publishes blog posts about the subject.
 
HumAInism by DiploFoundation has some AI tools related to diplomacy and arts.
 
Can ChatGPT Explain Geopolitics? is an exercise to compare two essays and test if you can identify the one written by AI. It is published by Foreign Policy magazine.
 
Interactive webpage about the cost of AI in different languages (Tokenization fairness).
 
Webpages
 
Artificial Intelligence and Diplomacy by DiploFoundation. 
 
Artificial Intelligence by Digwatch (Geneva Internet Platform)
 
Center for AI and Digital Policy
 
Center for the Advancement of Trustworthy AI
 
Partnership on AI
 
Videos
 
Artificial Intelligence and Diplomacy Webinar. UNITAR and UOC. (2023, February 15).
 
AI and Diplomacy: Challenges and opportunities. UNITAR (2023, May 10)
 
Studies and articles 
 
Bjola, C. (2019, October 19). Diplomacy in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. Real Institute Elcano. 
 
Bjola, C. (2020). Diplomacy in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. EDA Working Paper. Emirates Diplomatic Academy. 
 
Bjola, C. & Manor, I. (2023, April 25). ChatGPT: The end of diplomacy as we know it. Global Policy.
 
Cocking, S. (2016, September 19). Using algorithms to achieve digital diplomacy. A conversation with Elad Ratson, Director of R&D at Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Irish Tech News.
 
Deloitte AI Institute for Government & Google Cloud. (2022). Using Artificial Intelligence (AI) to Modernize American Statecraft. 
 
Dickow, M. and Jacob, D. (2018). The Global Debate on the Future of Artificial Intelligence. Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik [SWV] Comment No. 23, p. 7.
 
Digwatch. (2019, February 5). Artificial intelligence and diplomacy: A new tool for diplomacy? EVENT REPORT. Digwatch. Geneva Internet Platform.
 
Digwatch. (2023, July 17). UN Security Council convenes to discuss AI risks. Digwatch. Geneva Internet Platform
 
DiploFoundation. (2019). Mapping the challenges and opportunities of artificial intelligence for the conduct of diplomacy. DiploFoundation and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland. 
 
DiploFoundation. (2023, May 3). First full AI-reporting from the UN meeting. DiploFoundation blog.
 
DiploFoundation. (2023, May 3). AI-based report of United Nations Security Council debate marks start of a new era in multilateral diplomacy. DiploFoundation blog.
 
Elia Valori, G. (2023, July 8). Artificial Intelligence and the New World Order (1). Modern Diplomacy. 
 
Elia Valori, G. (2023, July 30). AI and the new world order: Economy and war (2). Modern Diplomacy.
 
European Migration Network. (2022). The use of digitalisation and artificial intelligence in migration management: Joint EMN-OECD Inform. 
 
Galeotti, M. (2023, January 7). The age of AI diplomacy. The Spectator.
 
Keohan, C. & Kralev, N. (2022, August 7). Want to Be a Diplomat? You Must Make it Past and A.I.’ Gateway’. Diplomatic Diary blog. Washington International Diplomatic Academy.
 
Kurbalija, J. (2023, May 1). Why might AI cause more ´lost in translation´ worldwide? DiploFoundation Blog.
 
Kurbajila, J. (2023, June 12). The case for bottom-up AI. Al Jazeera. 
 
Kurbalija, J. (2023, August 1). What can Socrates teach us about AI and prompting? DiploFoundation Blog. 
 
Laferrière, H. & McPherson, A. (2019, April 24). Augmented Decision-Making @ IRCC. Presentation to the Symposium on Algorithmic Government. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada.
 
Lederer, E. (2023, July 3). UN Council to hold first meeting on potential threats of artificial intelligence to global peace. AP News.
 
Manor, I. (2023, February 21). The AI Moves In: ChatGPT’s Impact on Digital Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. 
 
Manor, I. (2023, March 30). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. 
 
Manor, I. (2023, April 4). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy - Part 2. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. 
 
Manor, I. (2023, April 18). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy - Part 3. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. 
 
Manor, I. (2023, June 15). AI’s Impact on Public Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. 
 
Manor, I. (2023, June 27). The Many Races that will shape AI. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. 
 
Manor, I. (2023, July 4). Real Fakes and the Future of Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog.
 
Manor, I. (2023, August 15). Towards the Strategic Use of AI in Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy blog.
 
O´Neil, L (2023, August 12). The Truth in Tech: These Women Tried to Warn Us about AI. Rolling Stone.
 
Petrov, A., La Malfa, E., Torr, P. H.S., & Bibi, A. (2023, May 17). Language Model Tokenizers Introduce Unfairness Between Languages. ArXiv:2350.1542.
 
Scott, B., Heumann, S., & Lorenz, P. (2018). Artificial Intelligence and Foreign Policy. Stiftung Neue Veranwortung.
 
Stanzel, V. & Voelsen, D. (2022). Diplomacy and Artificial Intelligence Reflections on Practical Assistance for Diplomatic Negotiations. SWP Research Paper. 
 
Strachan, G. & Manor, I. (2023, July 14). ‘I can be a bastard too’- ChatGPT’s Real Contribution to Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog.
 
Tarar, Z. (2023, February 23). Analysis - Could AI change the business of diplomacy? The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium.
 
Tarar, Z. (2023, February 27). Analysis - Which AI tools should diplomats use today? The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium. 
 
Tarar, Z. (2023, August 28). Analysis - Harnessing AI for diplomacy: Five tools to make your work easier. The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium
 
Teleanu, S (2023, August 21). A journey of discovery: Using simulation and AI to teach and learn about digital governance. DiploFoundation Blog. 
 
Williams, A., Micali, M. & Gebru, T. (2022, October 23). The Exploited Labor Behind Artificial Intelligence. NOEMA.
 
Williams, R. & Otto, L. (2022). Artificial Intelligence as a Tool of Public Diplomacy: Communication between the United States and Iran. The Thinker 90(1) p. 28-40.
 
Information about using AI for teaching and learning
 
Mollick, E. (2022, December 13). How to…use AI to teach some of the hardest skills.  One Useful Thing blog.
 
Mollick, E. (2023, January 24). The practical guide to using AI to do stuff. One Useful Thing blog.
 
Mollick, E. (2023, March 17). Using AI to make teaching easier & more impactful. One Useful Thing blog.
 
Mollick, E. (2023, July 15). How to Use AI to Do Stuff: An Opinionated Guide. One Useful Thing blog.
 
Mollick, E. Video series on Practical AI for Teachers and Students. YouTube.
 
 
References
 
Birka, I., Kļaviņš, D., & Kits, R. (2022). Duty of Care: Consular Diplomacy Response of Baltic and Nordic Countries to COVID-19. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, 18(1), p. 133-164. https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-bja10115
Bjola, C. (2019, October 19). Diplomacy in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. Real Institute Elcano. 
Bjola, C. (2020). Diplomacy in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. EDA Working Paper. Emirates Diplomatic Academy. 
Bjola, C. & Manor, I. (2023, April 25). ChatGPT: The end of diplomacy as we know it. Global Policy.
Deloitte AI Institute for Government & Google Cloud. (2022). Using Artificial Intelligence (AI) to Modernize American Statecraft. 
DiploFoundation. (2019). Mapping the challenges and opportunities of artificial intelligence for the conduct of diplomacy. DiploFoundation and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland. 
DiploFoundation. (2023a, May 3). First full AI-reporting from the UN meeting. DiploFoundation blog.
DiploFoundation. (2023b, May 3). AI-based report of United Nations Security Council debate marks start of a new era in multilateral diplomacy. DiploFoundation blog.
European Migration Network. (2022). The use of digitalisation and artificial intelligence in migration management: Joint EMN-OECD Inform. 
Galeotti, M. (2023, January 7). The age of AI diplomacy. The Spectator.
Keohan, C. & Kralev, N (2022, August 7). Want to Be a Diplomat? You Must Make it Past and A.I.’ Gateway’. Diplomatic Diary blog. Washington International Diplomatic Academy.
Kurbalija, J. (2023, May 1). Why might AI cause more ´lost in translation´ worldwide? DiploFoundation Blog.
Laferrière, H. & McPherson, A. (2019, April 24). Augmented Decision-Making @ IRCC. Presentation to the Symposium on Algorithmic Government. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada.
Manor, I. (2023a, February 21). The AI Moves In: ChatGPT’s Impact on Digital Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. 
Manor, I. (2023b, March 30). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. 
Manor, I. (2023c, April 4). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy - Part 2. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. 
Manor, I. (2023d, April 18). ChatGPT and the Future of Diplomacy - Part 3. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. 
Manor, I. (2023e, June 15). AI’s Impact on Public Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. 
Manor, I. (2023f, June 27). The Many Races that will shape AI. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog. 
Manor, I. (2023g, July 4). Real Fakes and the Future of Diplomacy. Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog.
Mollick, E. (2022, December 13). How to…use AI to teach some of the hardest skills.  One Useful Thing blog.
Mollick, E. (2023a, January 24). The practical guide to using AI to do stuff. One Useful Thing blog.
Mollick, E. (2023b, March 17). Using AI to make teaching easier & more impactful. One Useful Thing blog.
Mollick, E. (2023c, July 15). How to Use AI to Do Stuff: An Opinionated Guide. One Useful Thing blog.
Stanzel, V. & Voelsen, D. (2022). Diplomacy and Artificial Intelligence Reflections on Practical Assistance for Diplomatic Negotiations. SWP Research Paper. 
Tarar, Z. (2023a, February 27). Analysis - Which AI tools should diplomats use today? The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium. 
Tarar, Z. (2023b, August 28). Analysis - Harnessing AI for diplomacy: Five tools to make your work easier. The Diplomatic Pouch at Medium.
Teleanu, S (2023, August 21). A journey of discovery: Using simulation and AI to teach and learn about digital governance. DiploFoundation Blog. 
Williams, R. & Otto, L. (2022). Artificial Intelligence as a Tool of Public Diplomacy: Communication between the United States and Iran. The Thinker 90(1) p. 28-40.
 
DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are those of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company.

​Below are some images created by Bing.chat. Interestingly, I explicitly asked not to include robots, but the system did not seem to care.  What are your thoughts?

 
November 2022 could be a historical moment for humanity. OpenAI launched its ChatGPT Artificial Intelligence (AI) program, which is already changing our world. A leading expert, Andrew Ng, equates AI advances that will radically transform society to the arrival of electricity at the end of the 19th century (Jewell, 2019). Besides, just a couple of weeks ago, the stock of Nvidia, a semiconductor manufacturing company that produces chips for AI computing, skyrocketed 25 percent in one day (Aratani, 2023), becoming more valuable than Intel. 
 
AI has been used for some time without much hoopla. We have been using AI in the voice command assistants such as Amazon’s Alexa, Apple’s Siri and HomePod, and Google’s Home. Also, AI makes music recommendations on Spotify or for products on Amazon’s webpage. However, in November 2022, ChatGPT propelled artificial intelligence into the limelight of the tech revolution. Why? It was the first question I had after participating in the Summit on Digital Diplomacy and Governance, organized by DiploFoundation, but I did not know the answer. Fortunately, now I think I can answer the question: Because ChatGPT is a Generative AI that can produce new content, it is very easy to use and is widely accessible (it is the fastest platform to reach 100 million users). 
 
Since then, I have been trying to understand the basics of AI, but I am still struggling. Right now, there is so much information about it that it is mind-blowing to find reliable resources. Many are riding the AI wave taking advantage of its novelty and the ignorance of regular people. In this blog post, I share my understanding of AI’s basics, while another post will focus on the impact on diplomacy and other fields.
 
Warning: I have also been playing around with Google’s Bard and Microsoft’s Bing.chat on an Edge browser; therefore, you will find some of their outputs in the blog post. 
 
So, what is Artificial Intelligence?
 
According to Bing.chat: 

 






As part of the "Digital Diplomacy 4.0" project, today I will write about tech diplomacy, also known as TechPlomacy.
 
In the last few months, the disruptive arrival of the now-famous ChatGPT Artificial Intelligence (AI) software has attracted much attention and discussion about the role of technology in society. Part of the debate has also focused on the impact of technology on diplomacy, including a new approach referred to as TechPlomacy or tech diplomacy. You can read more in my blog post Why Denmark sent a Tech Ambassador to Silicon Valley?
 
In April 2023, the DiploFoundation published the updated version of the study Tech diplomacy practice in the San Francisco Bay Area. The original version is from 2018, a year after Denmark announced the designation of the first tech ambassador, who was responsible for engaging diplomatically with tech giants like Apple, Amazon, Meta (Facebook), and Alphabet (Google) and Silicon Valley's entrepreneurial ecosystem, which includes venture capitalists, think tanks, universities, entrepreneurs, research labs, and other actors.
 
The subject seems very interesting because of several reasons: 

1. The influence of technology on world politics is immense, from cyberattacks that can change the outcome of an election to ransomware that can shut down the electric power of a country. Therefore, ministries of foreign affairs and diplomats new to adapt to these changes, as it is vital. But first, there must be some level of understanding about how technology works. Adopting tech diplomacy policies is a way to showcase their adaptability and to seek advantages before somebody else takes them away.
2. In the course I teach, I use the tech ambassador as a case study about the influence of technology on diplomacy so students understand today's diplomacy, which is increasingly done digitally. 
3. I found it intriguing why a country would designate an ambassador as its representative for a specific industry when many businesses throughout history have amazed immense power. I wanted to know why there were no Oil, Arms, or Banks Ambassadors before, but now we have envoys to Silicon Valley (Blumenthal, 2018).

 
The first question that comes to mind is why tech giants are different from other corporations. Blumenthal (2018) explains why tech giants are so powerful nowadays that countries send ambassadors to Silicon Valley. He indicates that "digital platforms govern the spaces they control. And by developing new technologies deployed as platforms, they can govern entirely new spaces before national governments are even aware." So, it is not just their vast amounts of cash or the unreal market capitalization, it is primarily their ability to control the digital space, as no other corporation did before, what separates them from the rest of the businesses.
 
The second issue would be, what is a tech diplomat? It seems an easy question, but the reality is much more complicated. Diplo's study identifies eight different tech diplomats' titles (Ittelson & Rauchbauer, 2023, p. 17). See Table 1 for a detailed view of titles. 
 
Table 1: Tech diplomatic representations in Silicon Valley.

Note: *The office has a global mandate. Source: Ittelson & Rauchbauer, 2023.

Ilan Manor, a respected digital diplomacy expert and blogger, explains that a tech diplomat should be "a diplomat who has been trained in using advanced technologies, [who is] able to leverage existing technologies to obtain foreign policy goals [and] is trained in dealing with technology-related policies, such as regulating social media and combating disinformation" (Manor, 2023).
 
Denmark's experience is telling, as the first tech ambassador struggled with some tech giants. For example, the tech ambassador recalled taking off the tie to be less formal, while the tech company representative wore shorts and flip-flops (Johnson, 2019). He also referred to scheduling a meeting with a senior executive to discuss specific technology topics. To his dismay, when he arrived, he was offered a tour of the building and some company souvenirs (Satariano, 2019).
 
Later, Denmark issued the Strategy for Denmark's Tech Diplomacy 2021-2023, which expanded the responsibilities of its tech diplomacy, including issues related to democracy and security. It also made some changes, including involving more embassies and consulates, establishing an advisory board, and adding a citizens' engagement component (Government of Denmark, 2021, p. 10). It was a different perspective than when the MFA named the first tech ambassador. Listen to the podcast A Conversation with Denmark's Tech Ambassador to learn more about the current priorities (April 2023).
 
In September 2022, the European Union designated its first Senior E.U. Envoy for Digital to the U.S., posted in San Francisco's Bay area. More recently, in April 2023, the U.S. State Department's Bureau of Cyberspace and Digital Policy announced posting cyber and digital officers in every embassy and special training for diplomats. Meanwhile, "China created a network of around 140 specialised diplomats to identify and support the acquisition of emerging tech companies and technologies across the globe" (Erzse & Garson, 2022, p. 13).
 
Diplo's 2023 report on Tech diplomacy in Silicon Valley is a must-read for anybody interested in the current state of affairs. The study analyzes the practices, challenges, and opportunities. It also includes different ways countries instrument this idea. It is a bit concerning that most of them are from the Global North (Ittelson & Rauchbauer 2023 p. 17); therefore, Global South nations might be falling behind, particularly with recent extraordinary advances in artificial intelligence. But there is hope. Now, Diplo and the recently established Tech Diplomacy Network offer a course on the subject to help bridge the gap. I am excited to participate in the course as a student starting this week.
 
Through practices that have lasted centuries, diplomacy and diplomats have established a common culture and even a "language" that is now codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. Tech diplomacy has yet to find a standard definition; therefore, there is still a lack of understanding and awareness on both sides, diplomats and corporate executives. However, the first step, dialogue, is being developed through these initiatives. 
 
For example, representation, one of the three functions of diplomacy, can be confusing from a corporate perspective. It is hard to know who the company represents. The logical response is that it represents the shareholders, but there are not that visible, with a few exceptions. Nowadays, many use the term stakeholders, but it needs to be clearly defined. Usually, the Chief Executive Officer and the executive board are the ones who make decisions and can be seen as representatives of the business. However, sometimes, they have a narrow vision, which significantly impacts their operations. Look at what they did to Twitter a few months ago.
 
Technology is evolving extremely fast, and governments, societies, and diplomats are lagging. There is a greater push for regulation and ethical usage to avoid the continuation and expansion of disparities, discriminatory practices, and even human rights violations and the deterioration of democracy. It is comforting that, through different schemes and venues, there is a greater dialogue between the tech giants and governments. This conversation should also include civil society, particularly from diverse backgrounds, to find real solutions to today's challenges. 
 
Diplomats and MFAs need to shake up and embrace technology, not only in the West but across the globe. Manor proposes the creation of a Digital Desk that "would run an MFA's digital activity [including] oversee consultations in UNESCO dealing with ethical A.I. development…and formulate digital policies" (2023). This could be the starting point for a new, inclusive Tech diplomacy. 
 
In the next delivery of the "Digital Diplomacy 4.0" project, I will write about the basics of AI and, later on, about the link between diplomacy and A.I.diplomacy-40-how-artificial-intelligence-is-changing-diplomacy.html.
 
You can read more about the power of tech giants in my blog post about AI and geopolitics here: diplomacy-40-navigating-the-ai-era-geopolitics-diplomacy-and-the-power-of-artificial-intelligence.html

Do not forget to read some other posts about the subject: 
 

• Diplomacy and Technology: The future is happening now (January 18, 2023) 
• Digital Diplomacy 4.0: The Future is Now (May 2, 2023) 
• Digital Diplomacy 4.0: The Basics of Artificial Intelligence (June 7, 2023)
• Digital Diplomacy 4.0: How Artificial Intelligence is Changing Diplomacy? (August 20, 2023)
• Diplomacy 4.0: The Rise of Artificial Intelligence as a Subject of Diplomatic Negotiations (November 20, 2023)

Below is a list of some resources on Tech diplomacy that can be useful for anybody interested in the topic. Let me know if I missed one, or send your suggestion via comments or email. 
 
RESOURCES ON TECH DIPLOMACY:
 
Online course: 
Tech Diplomacy. The DiploFoundation. 
 
Research Center
Krach Institute for Tech Diplomacy at Purdue University, U.S.
 
Network
Tech Diplomacy Network. A joint effort by the Berggruen Institute, the World Economic Forum (C4IR), the Bay Area Council Economic Institute, and the DiploFoundation. 
 
Interview with Denmark's Tech Ambassador (Podcast):
Radsch, C. (Host) (2023, April 23). A Conversation with Denmark's Tech Ambassador -Anne Marie Engtoft Larsen-. Audio Podcast Episode, Tech Policy Press. 
 
Studies and articles: 
 
Bremmer, I. & Kupchan, C. (2022, January 3). Risk 2: Technopolar World. Top Risks 2022. p. 5-6. Euroasian Group.

Erzse, A. & Garson, M. (2022). A leader's guide to building a tech-forward foreign policy. Tony Blair Institute for Global Change. 
 
Farrow, R. (2023, August 21). Elon Musk´s Shadow Rule. How the U.S. government came to rely on the tech billionaire—and is now struggling to rein him in. The New Yorker.

Garcia, E. V. (2022, June 14). What is tech diplomacy? A very short definition. Beyond the Horizon Blog.
 
Giles, K. (2023, September 12). Tech giants hold huge sway in matters of war, life and death. That should concern us all. The Guardian. 

Gruver, P. (2022). Korea-U.S. international exchange and cooperation in tech diplomacy; Tech diplomacy: Tech companies as power brokers in the digital age. Pacific Council on International Policy. 
 
Höne, K. (2023, March 6). What is Tech Diplomacy? Israel Public Policy Institute. 
 
Ittelson, P. & Rauchbauer, M. (2023). Tech diplomacy practice in the San Francisco Bay Area. The DiploFoundation.
 
Klynge, C., Ekman, M. & Juncher Waedegaard, N. (2022). Diplomacy in the Digital Age: Lesson from Denmark's TechPlomacy Initiative. In Christian Lequesne, Ministries of Foreign Affairs in the World: Actors of State Diplomacy, (pp. 263-272). Brill.
 
Manor, I. (2023, April 25). What is a Tech Diplomat? Exploring Digital Diplomacy Blog (Digdipblog).
 
Marcus, G. (2023, November 23). Critical national security questions should not be decided unilaterally by unelected tech leaders. Marcus at AI.

Matania, E. & Sommer, U. (2023, November 20). Tech titans, cyber commons and the war in Ukraine: An incipient shift in international relations. International Relations, 0 (0). https://doi.org/10.1177/00471178231211500

Mind the Bridge. (2022). Government innovation outposts in Silicon Valley: 2022 report update. 
 
REFERENCES
 
Blumenthal, P. (2018, June 23). Big tech companies are so powerful that a Nation sent an Ambassador to them. Huffington Post.
Government of Denmark. (2021). Strategy for Denmark's Tech Diplomacy 2021-2023.
Ittelson, P. & Rauchbauer, M. (2023). Tech diplomacy practice in the San Francisco Bay Area. The DiploFoundation.
Johnson, K. (2019, October 8). Tech giants, small countries, and the future of techplomacy. Venture Beat.
Satariano, A. (2019, September 3). The world's first Ambassador to the tech industry. The New York Times.
 
DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are that of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company.
​

 
After participating in the Summit on Digital Diplomacy and Governance organized by DiploFoundation (see my blog post here), I realized that today’s diplomats need to not only know about the current trends in technology and their impacts on diplomacy but also need to be able to actively participate in the discussions, such as the UN’s Global Digital Compact. Therefore, in the coming months, I will work on a special project titled "Digital Diplomacy 4.0." 
 
The well-known digital diplomacy scholar Corneliu Bjola explains that we are now in the fourth iteration of digital diplomacy. The first occurred with the Arab Spring, showcasing social media’s impact on the real world. The second wave happened in 2015 and 2016, with the appearance of the “dark side” of technology and its effects on the U.S. presidential election and the Brexit vote (Bjola, 2022).
 
The COVID-19 pandemic launched digital diplomacy 3.0, with the ubiquitous use of Zoom and other platforms that allowed continuous interactions among diplomats and other international actors when the world shut down (Bjola, 2022). 
 
Prof. Bjola indicates that today digital diplomacy has moved forward to a new phase, what I call 4.0, due to the arrival of disruptive innovations such as Artificial Intelligence and the Metaverse (Bjola, 2022). As their predecessors, these new technologies will considerably impact the digital and real worlds. The idea is consistent with the Highlights from the Summit on Digital Diplomacy and Governance that took place in November 2022. 
 
Since then, the arrival of ChatGPT has turned the world upside down. It is amazing the speed that things are happening. In the last months, there has been a tremendous number of events to discuss the impact of AI on everything. Here are some of them:

• Technologies of Tomorrow: A Conversation with Eric Schmidt. (January 11, 2023). Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 
• Will AI take over diplomatic reporting? (WebDebate #56). Here are the Video, the Human-made summary, and the AI-generated report. (February 7, 2023). The DiploFoundation. 
• What role can AI play in diplomatic negotiation? (WebDebate #57). (March 7, 2023). The DiploFoundation. 
• How to Train Diplomats to Deal with AI and Data? (WebDebate #58). (April 4, 2023). The DiploFoundation.

 
Diplomats worldwide cannot wait until these new technologies mature to embrace them, and they need to take the bull by the horns and start learning these disruptive inventions. The DiploFoundation is an excellent resource, and it is ahead of most capacity-building institutions that perfectly combine courses on technology and internet governance, and diplomacy. 
 
Besides, governments need to work on their digital strategies, and the ministries of foreign affairs need to incorporate them into their foreign policy and diplomatic efforts. Some countries, like Switzerland, have already are working on them and in late 2020 presented its digital foreign policy strategy.
 
Here are some resources that I found extremely useful to start diving into the realm of digital diplomacy 4.0:

• DiploFoundation’s webpages dedicated to digital diplomacy, Artificial Intelligence and diplomacy, internet governance and digital policy, and digital foreign policy.
• Geneva Digital Atlas 2.0
• The technologies section of the Digwatch website.
• Oxford Digital Diplomacy Research Group.
• The Cyber diplomacy issue of the Public Diplomacy Magazine.
• Exploring Digital Diplomacy blog by Ilan Manor.

 
In the coming days, I will discuss Technology Diplomacy or TechPlomacy. Here is my previous blog post about the subject. 
 
Reference:
 
Bjola, C. (2022). Stratcom-Talks, Episode 29 (podcast interview).
 
DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are that of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company.

 
In November 2022, I had the fantastic opportunity to attend the Summit on Digital Diplomacy and Governance organized as part of the 20th anniversary of the DiploFoundation.
 
The main takeout of the superb conference is that, as in the past, technology is changing diplomacy very fast. Diplomats and ministries of foreign affairs (MFAs) need not just to try to keep up with the changes but be prepared to take advantage of the opportunities it brings and protect against the threats it presents.
 
As it was a decade ago with the appearance of social media, nowadays, diplomats and people who perform diplomatic functions must be aware of the rapid changes happening in the digital realm. From the rise and consolidation of TechPlomacy (Technology Diplomacy) and Digital Foreign Policy to the upcoming arrival of quantum computers and the fast-changing face of Artificial Intelligence, technology is changing diplomacy and the world´s geopolitics. 
 
The adaptation of diplomacy to technological revolutions is not new. To learn more about the topic, make sure you visit Diplo´s interactive page on the History of Diplomacy and Technology or watch the very educational and informative Masterclass Diplomacy and Technology: a Historical journey, which at the end of each chapter has a great surprise.
 
Diplo´s uniqueness 
 
There are few places or institutions in today´s world that bring together specialists in ICT and internet governance and practitioners of diplomacy in such a dynamic way like Diplo does. It has achieved this perfect communion through consistency, innovation, and total commitment to capacity building with a particular focus on small and developing states.
 
Another marvelous aspect of Diplo is that the Summit and all events it organizes have an incredible array of participants from all corners of the world, with a considerable proportion of women and the Global South. Furthermore, many of the attendees were Diplo´s Alumni, so the camaraderie of the Summit was just unbelievable. I even learned how to dance Jerusalema!
 
Summit on Digital Diplomacy and Governance. The Future of Diplomacy: From Geopolitics to Emerging Technologies.
 
According to Diplo, the Summit had 33 sessions, 68 speakers, and 510 participants (DiploFoundation, 2022). Here is a video about it.  

​For a summary of the event, read the Digwatch Newsletter, Issue 75 (December 2022). One of the highlights was the idea that digital diplomats “need to acquire new skills in digital governance: An understanding of the new geopolitics and geo-economic landscape, knowledge of the technology fuelling these developments, and the skills to engage with other actors, including tech companies, academia, and civil society” (Geneva Internet Platform, 2022, p. 6). For a complete summary of the meeting, visit Highlights from the Summit on Digital Diplomacy and Governance
 
To learn more about the participants' perspectives, Diplo created a series of videos and messages titled “Summit in a minute”, which I recommend watching/reading. You will see the significant diversity of the Summit´s attendees and their broad perspectives.
 
Opportunities for learning about new technology and its impact on diplomacy.
 
The future is happening now, as Tech giants and digital nomads are working hard to code new technologies and apps that will transform the world. In the last decade, we have seen the disruptive power of social media. The coming changes will likely have a more significant impact, from automation affecting millions of jobs and livelihoods to data mining and artificial intelligence.
 
Therefore, I encourage diplomats to ride the wave of technological changes before it is too late. Fortunately, DiploFoundation has many tools and options for learning and engaging. Here are some courses offered by Diplo:

• Advanced Diploma in Internet Governance.
• Public Diplomacy
• Artificial Intelligence: Technology, Governance, and Policy Frameworks.
• Introduction to Internet Governance.
• Diplomatic Theory and Practice.
• Humanitarian Diplomacy.
• Multilateral Diplomacy.

 
 
You can also read my blog posts about the subject here:

• Digital Diplomacy 4.0: The Future is Now (May 2, 2023) digital-diplomacy-40-the-future-is-now.html
• Digital Diplomacy 4.0: Tech Diplomacy (May 8, 2023) digital-diplomacy-40-tech-diplomacy.html
• Digital Diplomacy 4.0: The Basics of Artificial Intelligence (June 7, 2023) digital-diplomacy-40-the-basics-of-artificial-intelligence.html
• Diplomacy 4.0: How Artificial Intelligence is Changing Diplomacy?  (August 20, 2023) diplomacy-40-how-artificial-intelligence-is-changing-diplomacy.html
• Diplomacy 4.0: Resources on Diplomacy and Artificial Intelligence (November 11, 2023) diplomacy-40-resources-on-diplomacy-and-artificial-intelligence.html

REFERENCES:
 
DiploFoundation. (2022). Highlights from the Summit on Digital Diplomacy and Governance. 
Geneva Internet Platform (2022) Digwatch Newsletter, Issue 75 (December 2022). 

DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are that of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company.

While preparing for a new project, I came across a 2017 press bulletin of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark announcing the designation as the first-ever Tech ambassador as part of its new #TechPlomacy initiative.
 
Mr. Casper Klynge, a Danish career ambassador, arrived in the summer of 2017 in Silicon Valley. Things were not as smooth as they could be, as it took him nine months to meet with a senior official of a tech giant only to have a campus tour and a bag full of company goodies instead.[i]
 
In January 2020, the ambassador resigned for a post in Brussels working for Microsoft, a company that seems to better understand his role, according to Adam Satariano in his article The world´s first Ambassador to the tech industry as he frequently talked with the company´s president. [ii]
 
In August 2020, the Danish Foreign Ministry appointed Anne Marie Engtoft as the new Tech ambassador.[iii] She is the youngest ever ambassador of Denmark.
 
Why Tech companies?
 
At first, it seems odd that it was specifically a Tech Ambassador, as there has never been Oil Ambassadors or Finance Ambassador from different countries. But the article “Big tech companies are so powerful that a Nation sent an Ambassador to them” explains very clearly why these tech mammoths[iv] are incredibly different from the rest of multinational corporations:
 
“It isn’t just their sheer size and scale that place tech companies alongside nation-states. They are categorically different from the industrial corporations of previous eras. They are transnational entities that deal in data and information, more than physical products. This allows them to slip the bounds of national origins much easier than any other company. And both their structure and their form differ from those of their ancestors.”[v]
 
Digital platforms are “infrastructure for markets, communication, and information dissemination… [and as such they] mediate between communities, they are able to set rules and regulations that govern the behavior of markets, publishers, people, politics and so on.”[vi]  
 
They also “govern the spaces they control. And by developing new technologies that are deployed as platforms, they can govern entirely new spaces before national governments are even aware that a new governor has emerged.” (ibid)
 
So, these businesses are totally different from traditional ones, so Ambassador Klynge is correct in stating that “These companies have moved from being companies with commercial interests to actually becoming de facto foreign policy actors.”[vii]
 
New duties.
 
According to a report,[viii] the ambassador had some traditional duties of any high-ranking diplomat in charge of trade and investment in an embassy, a consulate or trade or Investment promotion office abroad. It means that among his responsibilities were the promotion of Danish export and foreign investment attraction.
 
But the main objectives of the tech ambassador position are to establish a dialogue and create relationships, not only with the tech giants but think tanks, and universities, among others, and to relate information about the fast-changing technology that could have an impact on Denmark.
“…Part of the job involves intelligence gathering to help his government design policies before companies roll out new technologies such as advanced artificial intelligence, facial recognition tools, new health care platforms or autonomous vehicles in Denmark.”[ix]
 
These tasks are not constrained by a geographical district, like a regular embassy or consulate, as the office has a global mandate[x] that includes overseeing offices in New Delhi, Seoul, and Shanghai.[xi]
 
Ambassador Klynge, in an interview, explained that “We had to build a new team, we had to establish our own policies, we had to find out how to penetrate the tech companies in a way [that] you can have a strategic political discussion.”[xii]
 
New challenges.
 
Understandably, some companies took a while to understand the tech ambassador´s role because there are not used to this type of international engagement. One definition of Diplomacy is a system of communications and norms, so a country knows precisely what are the duties and responsibilities of any ambassador of a foreign nation.  And are traditions, such as granting immunity to the envoy, since the Greek city-states times.
 
In the context of arranging meetings, in the “real” diplomatic world, high-ranking officials understand that they would have to meet with an ambassador, considering the basics of reciprocity. In the tech world, there is no such thing as reciprocity.
 
Officials of most countries would have difficulties arranging a meeting with senior management of the tech giants, as most of them only meet at the highest level, e.g., heads of state and top ministers. This could be an impossibility for small nations, even for a highly regarded country such as Denmark.  So, naming an ambassador to Silicon Valley makes a lot of sense, with global responsibilities.
 
However, as mentioned, this innovative approach could cause some confusion. I imagine Mr. Klynge was recognized by the U.S. Department of State as the Danish Consul General in Palo Alto, California, where his office is located, or some sort of Special Envoy, as there cannot be another ambassador besides the one accredited to Washington DC.

​It would also be interesting to see how China, India, or other countries where he travels recognized him as ambassador, with all its privileges, including inviolability and immunity.
 
As the excellent introductory essay of The Oxford Handbook of Modern Diplomacy explains, there have been many changes in the diplomacy of the 21st Century, but the States are still the leading players.
 
Even with the massive increase of actors in the international arena, including companies, and the blending of borders, the States maintain their importance. Technology platforms are creating their own digital worlds, controlling most of the rules of engagement, establishing its governance, regardless of the users' nationality or location. No wonder there is a growing push for greater regulation of these new powerful international actors.
 
Interestingly, while announcing the designation of a new tech ambassador, the Danish Foreign Minister recognized the need to adjust this initiative, explaining that it “require[s] a new strategy and a relaunch of the tech initiative. We [Danish MFA] simply need to produce a tech version 2.0 and attain a more goal-orientated Danish effort to encourage the tech giants to become good, ‘global community’ citizens.”[xiii]
 
Innovation is essential, and a Tech ambassador could be a new form of diplomacy, particularly with the Tech giants that are not your ordinary multinational corporation such as Ford, Shell, or Bank of America.


[i] Satariano, Adam, “The world´s first Ambassador to the tech industry”, New York Times, September 3, 2019.
[ii] Kristensen, Carsten, “World´s First Tech Ambassador resigns”, Inside Scandinavian Business, January 20, 2020.
[iii] W., Christian, “Denmark to get new tech ambassador”, CPH Post, August 24, 2020.
[iv] The five U.S. tech giants are Alphabet (Google), Amazon, Apple, Facebook, and Microsoft. To learn about their economic power and competitive edge, see Crescioli, Tommaso, “Tech Giants and Competition: A Political Economy Perspective”, E-International Relations, October 27, 2020.
[v] Blumenthal, Paul, “Big tech companies are so powerful that a Nation sent an Ambassador to them”, Huffington Post, June 23, 2018.
[vi] Blumenthal, Paul, ibid.
[vii] Satariano, Adam, ibid.
[viii] Stokel-Walker, Christopher, “The First Silicon Valley ambassador is out to make nice with tech giants”, Wired, November 6, 2017.
[ix] Blumenthal, Paul, ibid.
[x] Denmark names first ever tech ambassador, Denmark MFA, 2017.
[xi] Sanchez, Alejandro W., “The rise of the Tech Ambassador”, Diplomatic Courier, March 23, 2018.
[xii] Johnson, Khari, “Tech giants, small countries, and the future of techplomacy”, Venture Beat, October 8, 2019.
[xiii] W. Christian, ibid.

DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are that of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company.

    
In this post, I will talk about Digital Diplomacy, even if it is not the central theme of the blog.

Today, diplomats using digital instruments is critical for any foreign ministry, particularly in Public Diplomacy campaigns and initiatives. Digital technology, mainly social media, is used to implement many Gastrodiplomacy and Consular Diplomacy initiatives.
 
Changes in technology have always impacted diplomacy, from the development of the clipper sailing ships to the arrival of the airplanes and from the telegraph[i] to Twitter and Zoom.

The way diplomacy is carried out was affected by these innovations. Instead of waiting for months to receive instructions from the capital, ambassadors and consuls could connect immediately to inform the situation in the host country and receive instructions. Of course, these changes also transformed international affairs, trade, and the use of force.
 
With the arrival of the internet, the development of the Web 2.0 that focused on interactivity that resulted in the creation of multiple social media outlets[ii], and smartphones, the so-called 3rd industrial revolution arrived: the digital world.
 
As in previous innovation waves, foreign ministries and diplomats have to adjust and adapt. For some activities, such as Public and Consular Diplomacies, digital technology has been a great addition to engage with foreign citizens in addition to their nationals abroad.
 
But a question still lingers, is “Digital Diplomacy” a new way of excising foreign policy, or is it just a tool to achieve these goals?
 
Digital Diplomacy is one of the areas of the new diplomacy that has had the most development as a field of study. A lot has been written about the topic from many different perspectives. A quick query on Google Scholar for 2020 comes up with 5,820 results.[iii]
 
But what is Digital Diplomacy exactly?
 
Corneliu Bjola is an Oxford scholar that has become a renowned researcher of digital diplomacy.[iv] He conceptualizes it “as the use of social media for diplomatic purposes.”[v] It is also viewed in “a broader perspective of the role of digital technology in diplomacy, not only as an instrument or medium of communication but also as a different mode of thinking about and practicing diplomacy.”[vi]
 
From Bjola´s perspective, the digitalization of diplomacy is more than just the inner works of the ministry of foreign affairs, including the struggle between early-adopters and old-school ´mandarins´. It also includes the government’s foreign policy objectives, the adoption of technological innovations, and the existence of a digital “dark side,” such as misinformation, propaganda, and infowar tactics.[vii]
 
So, Digital Diplomacy is not only Twiplomacy [viii] or the current COVID-19´s Zoom diplomacy[ix] but much more.

Ministries of foreign affairs need to speed up their creative power, capabilities, and abilities to be at the forefront, which in turn can bring more significant influence, thus Soft Power to the country.[x]
 
As many of the topics discussed in this blog, there is greater room for debate about the definition of Digital Diplomacy, as well as its reach. However, for now, I recommend having a look at Revista Mexicana de Política Exterior (Mexico´s foreign policy magazine) issue 113 titled Public Diplomacy in the Digital Era, which has articles in English from top scholars.

​ 

[i] The International Telegraph Union was the first international organization created in 1865 to work on the creation of international standard for telegraphs.
[ii] Most of them are based on the creation of content by the users rather than from the company itself. Well-know platforms that reach billions of people are Facebook, YouTube and Twitter, as well as  nowadays Snapchat, Instagram and Tik Tok.
[iii] You can also see Center for Public Diplomacy at University of Southern California comprehensive “Digital Diplomacy Bibliography” and Ilan Manor´s blog “Exploring Digital Diplomacy”
[iv] He established the Oxford Digital Diplomacy Research Group (DigDiploRox) . Other specialist on Digital Diplomacy are Ilan Manor, Juan Luis Manfredi Sánchez and Alejandro Ramos Cardoso.
[v] Bjola, Corneliu “Introduction: Making Sense of Digital Diplomacy” in Digital Diplomacy: Theory and Practice, Corneliu Bjola and Marcus Holmes (eds), Routledgde, 2015 p. 6.  For a in-depth but brief summary of different definitions and the evolution and risks of digital diplomacy see Adesina, Olubukola, “Foreign policy in an era of digital diplomacy” in Cogent Social Science, Vol 3, Numb. 1, 2017.
[vi] Bjola, Corneliu, .“Digital Diplomacy 2.0: Trends and Counter-Trends” in Revista Mexicana de Política Exterior, Num. 113, May-August 2018, p. 2.   Interesting enough, this magazine’s issue, was the first ever to be published in English, as well as Spanish.
[vii] Bjola, “Digital Diplomacy 2.0: Trends and Counter-Trends” p. 10
[viii] For a relatively new study of Twitter see Chhabra, Radhika, “Twitter Diplomacy: A Brief Analysis”, ORF Issue Brief No 335, January 2020.
[ix] For more examples see: Gotev, Georgie, “The Brief – Zoom diplomacy” in Euroactiv.com, April 24, 2020; “Diplomacy in the Zoom era” in Meridian, July 2020; Heath, Ryan, “For global diplomats, Zoom is not like being in the room” in Politico, April 16, 2020; and Aina, Dolapo, “Digital diplomacy in the era of coronavirus pandemic” in The Guardian, July 20, 2020.
[x] Bjola, “Digital Diplomacy 2.0: Trends and Counter-Trends” p. 5


DISCLAIMER: All views expressed on this blog are that of the author and do not represent the opinions of any other authority, agency, organization, employer or company.